Housing

Observation results

9. In the historical core of cities and in the areas of industrial construction implemented in the XIX century, there is an overpopulation (the density reaches 1000 and even 1500 people. Per hectare)

Density, i.e., the ratio between the population and the area of \u200b\u200bthe territory on which it lives can be significantly changed by varying the altitude of the development. But before our days, the floors of the buildings were limited within six-seven floors. Density allowed for such a floor make up 250-300 inhabitants per 1 hectare. If this density is, as happens in many areas, it reaches 600, 800 and even 1000 inhabitants, they are formed by slums, characterized by the following features:

1) insufficient living space per person; 2) extremely small light illumination; 3) insufficient insolation (northern orientation of the premises or their darkening in narrow streets and close courtyards); 4) the windiness of the buildings and the presence of pathogenic conditions (tuberculosis); 5) the absence or failure of sanitary devices; 6) Purpose of the population living in perishable apartments, bad houses located in adverse conditions.

The core of the ancient cities, surrounded by defensive fortifications, is usually densely built up with houses deprived of their free surrounding spaces. Outside urban walls, there were spacious green areas, easily accessible to the population. Over time, urban development has grown, and green vegetation was inferior to a stone building. So destroyed the "light" cities. Under these conditions, high density means a sharp deterioration in the life of the population.

10. The idles of urban areas creates the detrimental conditions for the residence of the population. These conditions are caused by the lack of necessary residential areas and proper care for buildings (the operation of houses is based on speculation). The situation is aggravated by the presence of a large number of population with a low vital level, which is not able to ensure protective measures against diseases (mortality reaches 20%)

The slumatic nature of the dwelling is determined mainly by its internal state. But poverty continues and outside the apartments - in narrow and dark streets, deprived of greenery - the source of oxygen, so necessary for the development of children.

Funds in ancient times nested in the construction of these cities have long been amortized; But still it is considered possible that the owner of the wretched dwelling is exploited by the rights of the goods. Despite the fact that the true value of such housing is negligible, it continues to properly bring considerable income to its owner. The butcher trading with rotten meat would be severely punished, but the provision of poor people of rotten housing is permitted by law. For the sake of enriching the handful of egoists, it is considered possible to allow terrifying mortality and the distribution of various diseases that cause severe damage to our society.

11. Growing cities gradually destroy the adjacent green arrays, adjacent to their border areas earlier. As a result, residential territories are increasingly moving away from the natural environment, which leads to a deterioration in hygienic conditions.

The more the city grows, the greater the damage to "natural conditions" is applied. Under the "natural conditions" we mean the presence of a sufficient number of necessary factors for the development of living beings - the Sun, space, greens. The uncontrolled growth was deprived of the city of their main psychological and physiological life basics. A person who has lost contact with nature is brutally paying for it - it is susceptible to disease and degeneration, it loses health and shakes the sake of illusory joys of urban life. All this has acquired a particularly wide scale over the last century.

12. Placing residential buildings in cities is in contradiction with hygiene requirements

The main task of urban planning is to ensure the necessary conditions for the full development of people. The health of each person depends on how much it is provided with satisfactory "natural conditions". The sun, managing the growth and development of all living things, should freely penetrate each dwelling, piercing it with its rays, so beneficially affecting the lives of people. The green environment should fill the dwelling with air purified from dust and harmful gases. Houses should be freely posted in space. It should not be forgotten that the feeling of space is an important psychophysiological factor, and the permanent streets and courtyards have a detrimental effect on health and adversely affect the overall state of people. The Fourth CIAM Congress, which took place in Athens, proclaimed the following postulate: the sun, greens and space are three main elements of urban planning.

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¹ CIAM - international congresses in modern architecture. Society, united by architects of different countries in order to update architecture and fight against academism, eclecticism and routine. Created in 1928. Basic organizers: Le Corbusier (France), Gideon (Switzerland), SERT (Spain) and Gropyus (Germany). (Approx. Per.).

The adoption of this postulate allows you to correctly assess the existing position and develop proposals for the future with a truly humane position.

13. The most densely populated areas of cities are located in the most unfavorable zones (poor orientation, areas shrouded in fog of industrial emissions, gas, territory subject to flooding, etc.)

There are no laws that determine the optimal conditions for modern dwellings, the conditions not only provide a normal standard of living, but also contributing to the permanent prosperity of a person. Land plots for building residential buildings are discharged arbitrarily as cities grow, guided by random, and sometimes lowland interests. State official, do not hesitate, can pace the highways of new streets in such a way that the newly built houses are deprived of the Sun thousands of apartments. Unfortunately, individual members of the municipalities are given the possibility of posting new working quarters in areas previously considered unsuitable for housing due to their excessive dampness. Such an official believes that he has never attracted anyone to himself a northern slope, a raw, proceedable place, accoprine of smoke, gas and harmful production discharge, quite a suitable place for the settlement of the so-called approach - workers who come to work from other countries and cities. ..

14. The good dwelling is washed by air (houses of the rich), is located in the best areas protected from unfavorable winds, in places with great views of the surrounding landscape - the lake, the sea, the mountains, etc. These areas are generously illuminated by the Sun

In the most favorable zones, luxurious houses are usually located. This proves that, having material opportunities, people instinctively seek to settle in good places, arranging their homes in the best natural conditions.

15. Such a dwelling of the dwelling is considered to be the city authorities normal and legalized and referred to as zoning

Zoning is the division of the city plan, aiming to determine the location of its various functions and individual inhabitants. It involves the distribution of urban space, respectively, various types of human activity: housing, industrial and shopping centers, territories and facilities intended for rest.

But if, by virtue of the established orders, the housing of the rich is separated from the dwelling of the poor, which is dictated by the "sacred law" of people to create the best and most healthy living conditions, we categorically condemn it. It is necessary to urgently change some established customs. It must be achieved that an irreconcilable law instruct certain life conditions for each person, regardless of his material situation. It is necessary to achieve urban-planning legislation that excludes such a situation when whole families of city inhabitants are deprived of light, air and space.

16. It should be established that houses built along the transport highways and on their intersection are not suitable for housing due to noise, dust and harmful gases.

If a similar ban will be entered, you will have to take separate zones for housing and transport paths. Then residential buildings will not "solder" to the street with sidewalks.

They will be placed in a clean medium, in silence, among the sun and air. Roads should be divided into low roads - for pedestrians and on road traffic roads - for mechanical transport.

These roads will perform each of their own functions, approaching the dwelling only in the necessary places.

17. The traditional accommodation of residential buildings along the streets provides normal accommodation conditions only the minimum part of tenants.

The traditional accommodation of residential buildings along the streets leads to their forced placement.

Parallel or diagonal highways, interconnected, form square, rectangular, triangular or trapezoid blocks. Being built up, they form "blocks". The need to illuminate the central space of such blocks generates the creation of inner courtyards of a wide variety of forms and sizes. Unfortunately, legislative prescriptions allow owners that thirsty of maximum profits to reduce the area of \u200b\u200bthese yards to truly scandalous sizes. All this leads to such a sad outcome: one of the facades, whether he is facing the street or to the courtyard, oriented to the north and thus always deprived of the sun, and in the others, given the sharpening of streets and courtyards and shadows, falling from nearby buildings, also half Lained sunlight. Studies have shown that in cities about half or one third of the facades of residential buildings does not receive sunlight. In some cases, this ratio is even more catastrophically.

18. Placement of household facilities arbitrarily

The life of individual families flows in apartments, each of them seeks to create the most favorable conditions for themselves and achieves it to measure its capabilities. In addition, each family needs the availability of a number of public structures, which are like a continuation of the housing. These are shopping centers, medical facilities, kindergartens and nursery, schools, as well as institutions and territories allocated to sports and recreation - "health complexes." The positive importance of these collective institutions is indisputable, but their necessity is still not realized by the mass of cities inhabitants. Their construction only begins and is fragmentary, without taking into account the common needs of the population.

19. Schools are usually placed near the transport highways and are significantly removed from residential areas.

School buildings, which are erected by special projects in accordance with certain requirements of the educational process, are usually poorly posted in urban areas. They are built away from the dwelling, exposing students to the dangers of streets. In addition, children under 6 years of age and adolescents over 13 years old are deprived of a number of pre-and post-school institutions, so necessary for their common development.

The location of residential buildings in cities does not provide opportunities for the proper placement of the necessary children's institutions. Properly posted children's institutions not only protect children from the dangers of the street, but also provide full-fledged education and the development of their physical and moral qualities.

20. Suburban areas are built up well and not provided with convenient connections with the city

Suburban zones of modern cities are degenerating suburbs and settlements. The ancient cities in the past were military settlements surrounded by defensive fortifications. Outside of defensive walls along the access roads there were approximates. They accommodated surplus of the population who did not have place within the city walls. People settled here at their own risk, exposing themselves to all sorts of dangers.

Over time, the Slobods, in turn, were consumed by defensive walls, including segments of roads from the city. This caused the first damage to the clear scheme of the initial city plan.

A characteristic feature of the era of machinery is the creation of a suburbs, unsystematic built-up territory, where there is no place for itself in the city, where all sorts of "risky" enterprises are created and small craft workshops are placed, the products of which are usually considered unavailable and temporary. In fact, many of these workshops sometimes grow to gigantic sizes. Suburbs are a kind of foam, beating about the walls of cities. In the XIX and XX centuries. This foam has turned into a sea tide, and then in the flood. She seriously compromised the fate of the city and the possibility of his regular exploration. Being a place of resettlement of random and poor people suffering from poverty and many other misfortunes, suburban zones have become a lifeful soil for various violations and riots. The suburbs often occupy the territory, many times large than the cities themselves. And from these flawed suburbs, for which the problem is a distance - time does not find permission, trying to create gardens. Ghost paradise, reckless venture!

Suburbs are a town-planning vice spread throughout the light and received the most affordable view in America. They are one of the most terrible curses of our century.

21. An attempt was made to include suburbs in the administrative trait of cities

Too late! Attempts to include suburbs in the administrative borders of cities were undertaken with a lot of delay. In their way, a law on the right of private ownership faced an irresistible obstacle. Expropriation of possession, located on the wasteland, on which his owner built several barracks, a storage room or a workshop, is associated with large and numerous difficulties. Sometimes these territories are small and almost not exploited, and the city is forced to provide a suburban zone by all elements of equipment and maintenance: build roads, conduct underground communications, create transport linkages, lighting, building schools, medical institutions, etc. due to the small number of people, Resiting in these areas, the cost of mastering the latter does not justify themselves and can threaten the city's budget. Whenever the city authorities set themselves the task of reconstruction and town-planning streamlining of suburban areas, they are found with such great financial difficulties that they do not have the ability to overcome them.

If the city authorities want to ensure the harmonious development of suburban zones, then they should begin to manage this case before the origin of the suburbs.

22. Suburbs are often territories with low-value buildings, which does not create the necessary conditions for development

Ineptly choped hibars, boarants filled with a wide variety of materials, refuge and vagrants - this is what suburbs are. Their ugly and dreary look - shame for the cities around them. Taxes collected from the midnight population are a meager amounts that do not replenish the cost of the improvement of suburbs, so their content falls around a heavy burden on the main population of the city. Suburbs are dirty front cities; They come out with numerous streets on top highways connecting cities among themselves, breaking and making dangerous movement on them. From the aircraft, they have the form of a web of randomly scattered buildings and streets; They produce a very unsightly impression on people arriving in cities in railways.

Need to demand

23. From now on, the best urban areas should be given to residential areas, taking into account the optimal topographic and climatic conditions, the parts most illuminated by the Sun and adjacent to green arrays

Cities that exist today are built without the desire to create favorable conditions for the population. History suggests that their gradual development occurred naturally, respectively, the requirements of time, and that the cities not only grew, but sometimes rebuilt within their territories.

The era of machinery, rudely broken orders of centuries, led the city to chaos. Our task is to bring order in the construction of cities, developing projects designed for their gradual reconstruction. Building residential areas and the problem of creating new types of apartments are the tasks of paramount importance. For the home, the best territories should be reserved and, if by virtue of indifference and the greed, they were brought into a bad state, you should attach all the necessary efforts to establish full order in them. To create the best conditions for housing, a number of requirements should be performed. It is necessary that when the housing is placed simultaneously, the following: From the windows of the apartments there should be picturesque prospects; Areas should be with clean air protected from winds and smoke, biases with optimal orientation. It is necessary to maximize the existing green plantings, restore them, and create new ones.

24. The choice of residential territories should be determined by hygiene requirements.

The state of many cities does not comply with modern, legally defined hygiene requirements. But the establishment of a diagnosis and recommendations of ways to solve the problem is not enough; It is necessary that the authorities have taken the necessary measures to correct the situation. In the name of public health, whole quarters of cities should be destroyed. Some of these quarters - the result of the rapid speculation - should be demolished to the base; Others representing historical value having cultural and art monuments should be partially saved. Everything that is an artistic and historical value must be saved, and what is in a threatening position and represents the danger, ruthlessly destroyed.

Almost alone alone in the order of housing is not enough, it is necessary to create its continuation outside the residential buildings in the form of sports grounds and structures organically included in the general plans of cities.

25. Depending on the natural conditions of the site and, accordingly, the necessary residential buildings should determine the necessary densities of the population.

City population densities should be established by law. Depending on the specific density conditions, there may be different: in one case, the city will be freely posted on the relief, in the other - to build compactly. Determination of settlement density is a high-balanced mission for governing bodies.

With the beginning of the era of machine equipment, the spontaneous and uncontrolled growth of cities began, which was the reason for the misfortune of many of them. The creation and development of settlements should be based on a deep study of specific conditions. The design of the city should be carried out on a great future, for example, for 50 years. The project must determine the optimal number of the population. The plan, calculated on the 50th anniversary, should provide for the rational placement of the population, taking into account the time-distance factor. With the establishment of the population and sizes of urban territory, the density of its settlement is determined.

26. For each apartment there must be a minimum of insolation

Studying solar radiation, science identified it useful, and sometimes a destructive impact on a person. The sun is the source of life. Medicine found that tuberculosis is distributed where there is no sun; It requires people to live if possible in the best "natural conditions". For several hours a day, the sun should penetrate each apartment, even in an unfavorable time of the year. The society will not laugh more so that whole families are deprived of the sun. Each project of a residential building, in which one of the apartments will be addressed entirely to the north or devoid of the sun due to the shading, should be categorically rejected. It is necessary to require the designers to represent the light of illumination, showing that even in the period of earthly solstice, each apartment will be lit by the sun at least 2 hours per day. Otherwise, the project should not receive the rights to implement. Enter the sun in the dwelling is a new and indispensable duty of the architect.

27. Construction of residential buildings along the transport highways must be prohibited

Transport artery, i.e., the streets of our cities do not meet the requirements of our time. A variety of streams are influenced in them: in one case, this movement of pedestrians, in the other - constantly interrupted movement of public transport - buses, trams and faster - passenger cars and trucks.

The sidewalks created in the era of equestrian traction in order to protect pedestrians from the carriage and wagon, in our time of large mechanical speeds do not respond to its original purpose. The entrances of many houses in the cities are facing directly on these dangerous places; The infinite number of windows of residential buildings goes to noisy and dust streets filled with harmful gases highlighted intensive movement of mechanical transport.

This provision requires radical changes: pedestrian speeds 4 km / h and mechanical speeds 50-100 km / h must be divided. The dwelling must be removed from the mechanical speeds, which should be allocated in special routes.

28. It is necessary to use the possibilities of modern technology for the construction of high-rise buildings

In each era of the building was built using the technical capabilities of their time. Up until the XIX century. The houses had carrier walls only stone and brick, and wooden floors were wooden. XIX century There was a transition and was marked by the introduction of profiled metal structures. And finally, in the XX century. Monolithic reinforced concrete and all-metal structures appeared. Prior to this, truly revolutionary, innovations in the construction of buildings The height of residential buildings did not exceed the seven floors. Nowadays these restrictions do not exist. Buildings reach 65 or more floors. Now it follows as a result of a serious and thorough analysis to determine the high-rise of urban development for each individual case.

To determine the necessary height of modern residential buildings, it is necessary to proceed from the task of choosing good viewpoints from windows, ensuring clean air and maximum insolation, the possibility of creating in the immediate vicinity of a number of necessary socio-domestic structures - schools, children's and medical facilities and playgrounds, which are like What would continue housing. In the best possible way to answer all these requirements of the house of high floors.

29. Placement of multi-storey buildings at a considerable distance from each other will free the Earth to create large green arrays

Such houses must be placed at a fairly large distance one from the other, otherwise they will significantly worsen the living conditions in them. Gross mistakes in this respect were allowed in the cities of both Americas.

Building cities, including the construction of private buildings, should be carried out in accordance with the specified program. It should be ensured a sufficiently high density of the development in order to be able to build the necessary public buildings that are a continuation of the dwelling. The density establishment will allow to calculate the reasonable number of the population and then determine the size of the territory necessary for the city.

The most important duty imposed on government authorities is to determine the relationship between the being built-in and free territories, the reasonable placement of residential buildings, private buildings and their continuation in the form of social and household structures. The authorities must determine the size of the city territory to the future and prevent its growth. All this should get their expression in the publication of the Law on the development of urban areas.

Thus, from now on, the buildings of cities will be strictly regulated within the limits defined by law, subject to the provision of broad opportunities for the manifestation of private initiative and the artist's imagination.

The "Woisen Plan" (1925) is an experimental project for the radical reconstruction of Paris, with which in 1925, Le Corbusier was performed at the international exhibition of decorative art. Woisen plan envisaged the construction of a new business center of Paris on a fully cleared territory; For this, it was proposed to carry 240 hectares of the old urban building. Eighteen the same skyscrapers of offices in 50 floors each were located in terms of the plan, at a distance of each other. High-rise buildings complemented horizontal structures from their foot - with the functions of all sorts of service and maintenance. The building area was only 5% at the same time, and the remaining 95% of the territory was discharged under highways, parks and pedestrian zones. Illustration from the book: Le Corbusier. La Ville Radieuse (1935).

Fragment of a Woisen Plan with a multi-level transport junction in the city center. Illustration from the book: Le Corbusier. La Ville Radieuse (1935).

Relaxation

Observation results

30. As a rule, free territories are always not enough

There are still free territories in cities. This is a miracle preserved to our land: Parks surrounding the royal and princely palaces, gardens belonging to rich townspeople, and shady boulevards created on the site of destroyed defensive fortifications. Over the past two centuries, these reserve territories were predicted. Thus, historically established arrays were destroyed, serving the "light" cities. At the site of lawns and green arrays, residential buildings were erected and stone bridges were made.

In the past, green spaces were the property of a limited circle of privileged population. Now you need a different social approach to solving this problem. Green spaces should receive a different purpose - to become a direct or distant continuation of the housing. Immediately when they surround residential buildings, and remote when they are large arrays at a distance from them. In both cases, their appointment is similar: to be places of collective recreation for young people, games, fun and walks.

31. Sometimes free territories are quite extensive, but are unsuccessful and therefore difficult to populate

If in a modern city and there are several extensive free territories, they are either located away from the central districts or these are gardens adjacent to rich mansions located in the city center.

In the first case, green arrays are far from the place of residence of the majority of the population and can only be visited on Sunday days. Therefore, they do not provide the necessary and beneficial effects on the daily life of the citizens flowing down in a detrimental basis.

In the second - they are not available to wide masses, therefore, the function is reduced only to decorating the city, but not to fulfill the role of everyday and useful continuation of the dwelling.

Thus, in both cases, the most important problem of nationwide hygiene remains unresolved.

32. Free spaces located on the periphery of cities, do not contribute to the improvement of the living conditions of the population living in central overpriced areas

The task of urban planning is to develop rules that ensure favorable living conditions for the population not only by improving their physical condition, but also moral, make life joyful. After sometimes heavy, physically and nervously exhausting labor, people should have enough rest of the rest. These free hours, which, thanks to the introduction of machinery, will undoubtedly increase, should pass in favorable natural conditions.

Therefore, the creation and protection of green territories of cities are an essential event that promotes improving the health of people. This is one of the main tasks of urban planning, which government authorities should pay maximum attention.

The problem of housing can be satisfactorily solved only if it is possible to ensure the correct proportional relations between the built-up and free territory.

33. Rare sports facilities, erected near residential areas, are often temporary, built on areas intended for promising housing or industrial construction. From here their permanent restructuring and transfer to new places

Showing concern about leisure of the population, sports societies create various complexes at temporarily free territories, but the construction is unofficially, therefore their existence is short-lived.

The time versus recreation and entertainment can be divided into three categories: everyday, weekly and annual. Everyday free time should be carried out in the immediate vicinity of the dwelling. Weekly allows you to go beyond the city and within the limits of the region. Annual vacation time or vacation can be held by traveling outside the city and area.

Thus, the backup green areas should be provided for: 1) in the immediate vicinity of the dwelling; 2) in the areas adjacent to cities; 3) in different parts of the country.

34. Areas that could be mastered for weekly rest, often poorly connected with the city

After choosing a territory for organizing a weekly rest in suburban places there is a problem of organizing transport links. This problem should be solved in the initial stage of planning work. Various types of transport links should be used - laying of highways and railways, the development of river paths.

Need to demand

35. From now on, in each residential quarter, it should create green areas for placing children's game and sports fields on them, as well as recreation sites for adult and elderly population.

This can only be provided in the presence of a law on the distribution of urban lands. The law should provide for the possibility of ensuring optimal conditions for the population of cities. Thus, the density of the population, the percentage of free territories and the construction area will vary in accordance with the function, location and climatic conditions. Built buildings will be posted among the surrounding green arrays. Residential and green zones should be mutually positioned so that they are easily accessible. The total town planning scheme of settlements should be modified: agglomeration will gradually turn into green cities. In contrast, the fact that there is a place in gardens, green spaces should not be divided into numerous private ownership, but constitute a single territory intended for collective use as a continuation of the dwelling.

Vegetable horticulture, which had an important meaning when creating cities-gardens, will continue in this case. Under the gardens there will be a certain amount of land divided into numerous individual sites; But their processing, irrigation or irrigation will be organized at a collective basis, which will facilitate their content and will contribute to an increase in yield.

36. Slumbal quarters should be demolished and turned into green spaces. This will improve the sanitary condition of the quarters adjacent to them.

Just common knowledge in the field of hygiene to be able to reveal slum and dilapidated quarters. These quarters should be demolished to the ground. The territories liberated from them must be turned into parks, which are in the initial stage of improving life and sanitary conditions for neighboring quarters. But it can be that the territory liberated from the Old Building is convenient to accommodate a number of structures necessary for the life of the city. In this case, a reasonable town-planning proposal will determine the feasibility of formulation of the relevant structure, which will be taken into account in the preparation of projects of the district planning and the general plan of the city.

37. New green areas should be designed for specific use: placement of kindergartens, schools, youth centers and other public buildings required for the service

Green territories on which residential buildings will be located, will be destroyed not only to decorate the city. First of all, they will perform a utilitarian function. In greenery will be located public buildings: nursery, pre- and post-school institutions, young people, cultural and sports facilities, readable and game pavilions, sports grounds, treadmills or open swimming pools. They will become a continuation of the dwelling, and therefore their creation should be provided for by the "law on the distribution of urban lands."

38. Weekly recreation hours should be carried out in specifically for this purpose of landscaped places - in parks, forests, on sports fields, stadiums, beaches, etc.

To organize a weekly rest of the population of cities, nothing has been created yet or almost nothing. For this purpose, extensive spaces in suburban areas will be reserved and landscaped. With these places the necessary and convenient transport links will be provided. This is not about simple glades surrounding residential buildings and planted with trees. These must be real prairies, forests, natural or artificial beaches, placed on alienated and carefully protected lands and intended for rest and entertainment of residents of the city. Such territories are available at short distances to each city, and they can be quite accessible to the public subject to the creation of a well-established transport link.

39. Parks, sports grounds, stadiums, beaches, etc.

The recreation program must include a variety of activities: collective and individual walks in scenic places; Various sports - tennis, basketball, football, swimming, weightlifting; Spectacles are concerts, a device of green theaters, holding sports and games. It should provide a number of specialized facilities: rationally organized vehicles of transport delivery, hotels, tourism, taverns, youth camps. An important task is to organize the supply of all recreation facilities and drinking water.

40. It is also possible to reasonably use existing natural factors - rivers, forests, hills, mountains, glads, lakes, sea, etc.

The problem of distances, taking into account the development of vehicles, will not play a decisive role. In this regard, sometimes it is more expedient to place recreation areas in some distance. When mastering the territory under the recreation zone, it is necessary not only to take care of the existing surviving landscape, but also to restore the places that damage was caused.

The local authorities are imposed on the most important task of social importance - to organize rest in such a way that it really restores the physical and moral forces of people. Efficient use of free time will strengthen the health and moral qualities of the population of cities.

Job

Observation results

41. Nowadays, the place of employment of labor is irrational in the urban building system. This industry, craft workshops, administrative and shopping buildings

In the past, the dwelling and the craft workshop were located close to each other, and sometimes they constituted a single integer.

The rapid development of machinery violated these harmonious conditions. Less than a century, it changed the face of the cities, destroyed century-old traditions and gave rise to a new kind of nameless and ever-moving labor.

The development of the industry largely depends on the possibilities of delivering raw materials and the organization of the convenient marketing of finished products. Therefore, industrial enterprises were literally spread along the paths updated in the XIX century., Railways and on the banks of the rivers, using river ships as a vehicle. Wishing to use a close residence of the workers and the existing supply base, industrialists placed their enterprises in existing cities or in close proximity to them, neglected by misfortunes that these factories and factories will bring urban residents.

Places placed in the midst of residential neighborhoods and factories smoked them and filled themselves. If they are located in a significant distance from residential neighborhoods, it forced the workers to make tedious and long-lasting movements in difficult conditions and thus deprived them of part time.

Violation of patriarchal working conditions of the labor organization caused an unimaginable mess, created problems that no one has been able to resolve anyone to this day, and gave rise to the great vice of our era - the nomadic lifestyle of the working population.

42. Communication between places of residence and work was disturbed, which causes the need for long movement

The most important factor of modern life is the connection of housing - work - turned out to be disturbed. The suburbs are flooded by masterfully, factories and large industrial enterprises that are constantly and infinitely growing, capturing all new and new lands.

Cities were overcooked, not able to accept new inhabitants. As a result, villages began to hurry in the suburban zones, which are coping to poor residential buildings and plots surrendered by VPE.

Workforce, not related to certain production, constantly changing jobs, day and night, in winter and summer, is in motion, disorganizing and overloading urban transport.

Unsurface movement of people leads to great time losses.

43. Urban transportation of urban transport in the watch "Peak" reached the limit

Public transport - suburban trains, buses and metro - work with full load only four times a day. In the watch "Peak", the movement becomes extremely tense. The population is forced to spend significant funds for the payment of transport that gives him great inconveniences, which are aggravated by fatigue after the working day.

Operation of public transport is related to considerable costs. Money paid by passengers does not replenish operational costs, so the transportation of the transport lies with a heavy burden on the city budget.

To overcome the established position, conflicting solutions are proposed: whether to create the best conditions for the organization of transport or to take care of passengers? We must choose! In one case, it is proposed to reduce the territories of cities, in the other - to expand them.

44. The absence of promising plans leads to the uncontrolled growth of cities, speculation by land plots, etc. Industry is placed spontaneously, without obeying any rules

Almost all urban lands and land suburban belong to private individuals. The industry is also in the hands of private companies subject to crisis and other phenomena, disorganizing their activities.

Nothing was taken in order to subordinate the development of the industry logical pattern. On the contrary, its development took place spontaneously, bringing profits to individuals and delivering the inconvenience to the entire population.

45. Administrative buildings are placed in business centers. These centers are located in the best parts of the cities and are provided with a developed transport network, so they reign in the spirit of private profit and land speculation. These areas also do not have rational development plans

The development of industry causes an increase in the administrative and commercial machine, and in this area, too, everything is developing unsystematic and free. It is necessary to buy, and sell, ensure contacts of factories with suppliers, with a clientele and with other enterprises. All this causes the need to create an administrative and management apparatus and, consequently, the construction of special buildings equipped with complex equipment. This equipment in dispersed form is quite expensive. The concentration of management in large organizations would be much more efficient, as it is easier to carry out the relationship of individual industries, it is more convenient to establish contact with other organizations. In addition, the working conditions of the employees would be improved. It would be promoted by a good illumination of premises, central heating, air conditioning, maintenance - expedition, post office, telegraph, etc.

Need to demand

46. \u200b\u200bDistances between work and accommodation sites must be minimized

To do this, it is necessary to carefully develop a plan for places of employment of the application of labor and proceed to the redeployment of enterprises.

The placement of industrial enterprises is ring-shaped around large cities could be convenient for a number of entrepreneurs and promote their enrichment, but such a principle should be refused due to the fact that this will worsen the vital conditions of the majority of the population will lead to excessive boring cities.

Industrial enterprises should be transferred to the paths of the movement of raw materials and build along the highway and railways and rivers. Transport routes have a linear extent, so industrial cities should not be concentric, but linear.

47. Industrial zones should be separated from residential areas, and the space between them is transformed into a green territory

Industrial cities should be built along the channels, highway and railways or consistently along the three listed paths. The city will become linear, not concentric. In this case, residential areas will be built in parallel to industrial enterprises and expand as they are expanded. They will be divided by the green area.

The dwelling will now be created among nature, it will be completely protected from noise and dust, while staying near the place of work, which will exclude long-term daily moving and allow people to use their family hearth. The development will be carried out by three types of residential buildings: individual houses, usually built in gardens, individual houses with small sections and, finally, apartment buildings with developed service, ensuring convenience.

48. Industrial zones should be built along railways, canals and highways

The increasing velocities of mechanical transport require the creation of more advanced transport arteries or reconstructions of existing highways, railways and channels. Reconstruction should be carried out taking into account the new placement of industrial enterprises and dwelling for workers.

49. Handicraft production, directly serving the population, must be placed on specially designated territories within cities

Craft production is different from industrial and should be placed in close proximity to the consumer. Its source is the life of the city. Printed and jewelry production, tailored business and fashion are created and inspired by the atmosphere of urban life. We are talking about enterprises directly serving the daily needs of urban residents, so their location can be allowed in the central parts of the cities.

50. A business center, where public and private administrative institutions are posted, should be well associated with residential and industrial areas, as well as with crafts placed in the central parts of cities or near them.

Administrative institutions have gained important in modern life, so their placement in the city should be paid to special attention. The business center should be at the intersection of transport arteries connecting residential and industrial areas, places of placement of handicraft enterprises, administrative institutions, individual hotels, train stations and airports.

Traffic

Observation results

51. The modern street network in cities is a web of the streets developed around the main roads, the beginning of which is in ancient times. In European cities, the creation of these roads dates back to middle eyelids, and sometimes to antiquity

Some fortress cities or colonization centers have already had clear and compact plans. First, defensive strengthening of strictly geometric outlines were applied to the drawing; The fortifications approached the main roads. Inside, these cities also received a clear layout.

The city of another, more common type was created at the intersection of two large roads passing through the whole country, or at the intersection of several radial roads. Roads are closely related to the topography of the area and therefore often had a winding track. The first houses were built along these roads. This was the beginning of the creation of the main streets, which, as the cities grow, numerous streets and alleys of secondary meanings were adjacent.

The directions of the main streets have always been dictated by certain geographical conditions. Over time, they could be rebuilt and restore again, but still they always retained historical tracing.

52. Large streets were built on pedestrians and equestrian transport. Today they do not meet the requirements of mechanical transport

The ancient cities surrounded by walls in defense. Therefore, they could not expand due to the growth of the population. It was necessary to save the residence economically to place the maximum number of the population. This is explained by the close network of streets and alleys with a multitude of entrance doors. Such an approach to the development led to the creation of a system of small quarters with narrow facades of houses overlooking the streets and the courtyards.

Subsequently, when the walls were transferred to new frontiers, avenues were created and boulevards outside the historical core, which remained a preserved web of the streets. These areas that have long been not meeting the requirements of new times continue to be maintained.

They are still a system of small residential areas that are a product of the historical development of cities. Facades of houses overlook close streets and courtyards. Streets have frequent intersections. Created in distant times The street network is absolutely not adapted to the speeds of modern urban transport.

53. The size of the streets of old cities does not meet the requirements of modern high-speed vehicles and inhibit the development of these cities

The problem of transport arose due to the impossibility of coordinating the natural velocities of a pedestrian or a horse with mechanical velocities of cars, trams or buses. Their mixing is the cause of thousands of conflicts. A pedestrian moves with a constant threat of his life, while mechanical transport is forced to brake without end, while remaining a deadly threat to pedestrians.

54. Distances between street intersections are too small

In order to develop a normal speed of mechanical transport, you need to turn on the motor and gradually increase its speed. Braking should also not be instant, as this spoils the motor. Therefore, a certain distance must be traveled until the complete stop of the transport. But the intersections of the streets in modern cities, located at a distance of 100, 50, 20 and even 10 meters one from the other, do not favor the normal movement of mechanical transport. These distances should reach 200-400 meters.

55. The width of the streets is insufficient. Expansion of streets is a very expensive thing and not always achieving goals

For the width of the streets there can be no uniform sizes. It all depends on the movement tension and street bandwidth. Historically established the main streets of cities whose highways in ancient times were determined by geographic and topographic conditions and which endless many streams from secondary streets and alleys leave, were always loaded by movement. Usually these streets are narrow, and their expansion is sometimes a matter of very complex "ineffective. Therefore, the reconstruction of old cities should pursue more cardinal goals.

56. With the introduction of mechanical transport, the city's street network turned out to be irrational, deprived of proper trace, flexibility, diversity and compliance with modern requirements

The organization of movement in modern cities is very complex. On the highways there must be moving vehicles from one building to another, as well as similar movements of pedestrians. Buses and trams must move with speeds defined by the schedule; Trucks - make numerous trips according to the specified routes; Part of the transport - cross the city with transit.

It would seem that each of these routes should have its own route, providing a normal and unimpeded movement. Therefore, the task is to carefully examine the current state of movement, to develop proposals that allow you to solve this problem correctly.

57. Paradinary highways created with representative objectives could or can serve as a serious interference for traffic

What was permissible and even great in the times of pedestrians and carriages can be the reason for constant inconvenience and dangers today. Some prospectuses built for the sake of creating a monumental perspective, ending with a monument or by any parade building, these days are dangerous places of delays and transport plugs. These urban-planning compositions should not be oversaturated with modern mechanical transport, based on which they were not created and to whose speeds they never can be adjusted.

Transportation movement is the most important function of the modern city. Therefore, the transport program requires a serious and scientific solution capable of regulating its flows, create the necessary duplicate directions, achieving the elimination of excessive clusters, traffic jams and associated inconveniences.

58. In most cases, during the expansion of populated areas, the railway track network becomes a serious obstacle to the town-planning reorganization of cities. Railway tracks cut residential neighborhoods, violating natural contacts of the urban population

And in this issue, the events developed too quickly. Railways were built before the originated rapid industrial development. Currently, railway tracks have randomly penetrated the city and dissect residential areas. The transition through the railway canvas is not resolved, so it shares residential areas of cities, violating the necessary contacts of the population.

In some places it creates serious difficulties in the development of urban economy. Therefore, the primary task of urban planners is the immediate solution of this problem by bringing railway units outside the cities, which will ensure the normal functioning of urban life.

Need to demand

59. It is necessary to carry out careful statistical studies of transport flows of cities and the surrounding areas and develop new schemes of the urban movement, taking into account the movement tension on individual highways

Movement is a vital function of cities. Its current state should be expressed in the charts, which are particularly clearly identified intense nodes, which is necessary to develop project proposals. In projects it will be possible to provide a division of pedestrian movement flows, cars, cargo and transit transport. Each highway should receive characteristics and dimensions that ensure its transport function. In addition, special attention should be paid to the intersections and interchanges of streams.

60. Roads and highways must be classified according to their purpose and are built in accordance with the speeds and the nature of transport transmitted

In ancient times, there were uniform streets for which pedestrians and riders were simultaneously moving, and only at the end of the XVIII century. After the injection of strollers and the carriage appeared the first sidewalks. In the XX century On the old streets as a disaster hit the mass of mechanical transport - bicycles, motorcycles, trams, cars with their high speeds. The stunning growth of some cities, such as New York, caused a huge accumulation of transport in a number of districts.

It is time to take decisive measures to correct the position becoming disastrous. The first reasonable measure would be the separation of pedestrian flows and transport on the most loaded highways. Secondly, cargo transport should be directed on the roads specifically for this purpose. Thirdly, this is the creation of high-speed highways for transit transport and secondary roads for non-intensive urban traffic.

61. Tense road crossroads should be solved at different levels.

Machines going on transit should not be lingering at all intersections, it is useless to slow down the movement on them. The best way to resolve this problem would be an intersection device at different levels at each intersection. For the convenience of movement, large transit highways at certain distances should have branches for connections with ordinary city streets.

62. Pedestrian should be able to move on roads free from vehicles

It will be the complete reconstruction of the urban movement, the most reasonable, opening a new page in the history of urban planning.

Such a requirement for the organization of motion in its value can be compared only with the prohibition of the northern orientation of the dwelling.

63. Streets should be differentiated depending on their destination: residential streets, walking streets, transit highways, main arteries

Streets must perform certain functions according to their various purposes. Residential streets and territories assigned to public use require the creation of certain conditions.

In order to provide silence, peace and well-being of the dwelling and its "continuation" in nature, mechanical transport should be left to special highways. Transit highways will communicate with the city streets only in the field of entry into them. The main arteries ensuring communication with the surrounding areas and other cities will be the most important communication roads. In addition, pleasure streets will be highlighted on which limited velocities of transport will not violate pedestrian movements.

64. High-speed highways must be protected by green zones.

Transit and high-speed roads will be separated from the main urban highways and, therefore, from residential areas. But they still need to be protected with a dense green barrier.

Historical heritage cities

65. Historical architectural values \u200b\u200b(individual monuments or town planning ensembles) must persist

The life of the city is a historic phenomenon passing through the century, the memories of which remains monuments of architecture. These monuments attach a kind of nature. These are precious witnesses of the past, which over time acquire historical and spiritual value. In addition, these structures are captured by the features of the highest take-off artistic creativity of the people. Monuments are part of the world historical heritage, therefore it is necessary to make every effort for their safety today and at the coming times.

66. They will be preserved if, being national cultural values, will also be of interest as monuments of world culture

The assessment of the artistic importance of monuments should be distinguished by true values \u200b\u200bfrom low-value works. Not all old decent conservation, so it is necessary to make selection with great skill and wisdom.

In the event that the interests of the reconstruction of the city suffer from our desire to maintain a number of monuments of past epoch, it should be found a reasonable decision, reconciling the opposite points of view. In the event that we are talking about monuments available in several copies, then some of them should be saved as historical samples and destroy the rest. In other cases, it is advisable to maintain and restore the most valuable part, adapting the rest for the need of the city. And finally, in exceptional cases, moving monuments are allowed, which are a great historical and aesthetic value, but preventing reconstructive work.

67. If the preservation of historical values \u200b\u200bis related to the preservation of the unsanitary conditions of the population, then ...

Excessive cult of old days should not neglect the laws of social justice. There are lovers and connoisseurs of antiquities, which, because of the blind adoption, before the aesthetic qualities, the latter defend the need to preserve a number of picturesque old quarters, not believing with poverty, with disadvantage and diseases arising from people living in such conditions. In such cases, it is necessary to carefully understand and, perhaps, take the compromise and most wise decision. But in no case cannot retain a slum dwelling, morally oppressing people.

68. If the demolition of valuable works of architecture is the only possible proposal to resolve a transport or other town-planning problem, then in some cases the question of transferring to another place of the planned complex or structure should be considered

The rapid growth of the city can sometimes put the designers in a dead end, to get out of which you can only at the price of the victims. Suppose that objects representing an obstacle must be demolished. But if this proposal makes bringing genuine architectural, historical or cultural values, then it is better, of course, to try to find a different solution. Instead of eliminating the obstacle that violates the movement, the highway should be changed and to bypass it or pave a tunnel under it. Finally, a complex administrative and transport node can be transferred to a new place and fully redefine the system of highways in the overpriced location of the city. Invention, imagination in combination with the use of modern equipment will always help solve such problems.

69. Destruction of slum buildings surrounding historical monuments will give the opportunity to create green spaces

It happens that the demolition of dilapidated houses and slum neighborhoods around a valuable historical monument violates the arrangement of the emerging environment. This phenomenon is annoying, but inevitable. Such a situation must be used to create green spaces. In this case, historical monuments will be in another, sometimes unexpected, but still a permissible environment. But at the same time, the urban planning position of the adjacent quarters will improve.

70. The use of archaic architectural elements for the design of new buildings, built in the zone of historical monuments under the pretext of their architectural conjugation, can lead to detrimental consequences. Similar creative proposals can not be allowed

Similar methods contradict the experience of history. Never a refund to the past was not encouraged, never man did not reverse. The masterpieces of the past eras are convinced that every generation thought in his own way, created art and aesthetics, using the best technical achievements of their time in their work.

Rabbi copying past is to discover himself for a lie, it is in principle a false, for modern buildings will not be built ancient methods, and the construction of archaic structures with the use of modern construction equipment can only lead to senseless imitation of the works of past eras.

Mixing old with new, it is impossible to create a truly ensemble solution, which is different style unity. It will be a pure imitation that prevents the perception of a true monument of art, for which such an unreasonable initiative was taken.

III. Conclusion. The main provisions of the doctrine

71. Most of the cities studied are today a chaotic spectacle: they absolutely do not meet their main purpose - to satisfy the pressing biological and physiological needs of their population

In connection with the preparations for the Athenian Congress, national sections of international congresses in modern architecture (CIAM) examined 33 cities: Amsterdam, Athens, Brussels, Baltimru, Bandung, Budapest, Berlin, Barcelona, \u200b\u200bCharleroi, Cologne, Como, Dattat, Detroit, Dessau, Frankfurt , Geneva, Genoa, Hague, Los Angeles, Latakia, London, Madrid, Oslo, Paris, Prague, Rome, Rotterdam, Stockholm, Utrecht, Verona, Warsaw, Zagreb and Zurich. They give a complete picture of the history of the white race in various climatic conditions and on different latitudes.

All cities indicate the same thing - the introduction of machine equipment broke the existing relative order. None of the cities are not witnessed serious attempts to adapt to new conditions. In all these cities, people are oppressed by all that surrounds them. The cities did not save and did not restored anything that it is necessary for the health of a person and the heyday of his spiritual life. These cities lies with the seal of the universal crisis of humanity spreading throughout. The city does not respond more of its function - to protect a person, and moreover to protect well.

72. This provision that emerged with the start of the era of machinery is explained by the ever-increasing occurrence of private interests.

The predominance of private interests generated by the thirst for personal accompanying and wealth is the basis of this worthy regret.

Forces contributing to the development of machinery, did not take anything to prevent damage caused by it, for which now, in essence, no one is in response.

During the century, the company was erected by spontaneously. The construction of dwellings and plants, iron, highways and laying of waterways were carried out in an incredible hurry under the sign of individual complication, or some pre-developed plans and thoughtful actions could not be speeches. But today evil happened. Cities are not suitable for people's lives. The cruel intransigence of individual private interests gave rise to the misfortune of a huge number of people.

73. The inexorable cruelty of private interests caused a destructive violation of the conformity between the development of productive forces, on the one hand, and the weakness of state leadership and the powerlessness of social solidarity, on the other

The senses of administrative responsibility and social solidarity are Popran and are groaned daily by the constantly coming and updating force of private interest.

These oppositely directional sources of energy are in constant confrontation, and when one of them attacks, the second is protected. Unfortunately, in this unequal struggle, more often wins private interest.

But the victory of evil can sometimes give rise to good. The tremendous material and moral defeat of modern cities may, will lead to the birth of legislative acts about cities, relying on which authorities will acquire the necessary authority to protect human dignity and be responsible for the health of the urban population.

74. Despite the fact that cities are constantly rebuilt, their reconstruction is carried out without a certain plan and control, as well as without taking into account modern urban planning science, which is the fruit of labor of highly qualified specialists.

The principles of modern urban planning were developed in the end of the labor of a huge number of specialists: builders, doctors, sociologists. They are set out in articles, books, materials of congresses, public and private discussions. But the task is to force the state bodies and representatives of the authorities to be guided by these principles, because they are responsible for the fate of the cities. However, these bodies are often very hostile to the bold proposals for the reconstruction of cities based on a modern scientific basis.

First of all, it is necessary to convince the guideling instances to act in the right direction. Mindness and energy will help come to consistent solutions.

75. The city must ensure the spiritual and material freedom of personality and promote the coloring of collective activities

Personal freedom and collective actions are two poles, between which human life takes place. In all measures to improve human living conditions, both factors should be taken into account. If the measures taken is not able to satisfy these often contradictory requirements, they are doomed to an inevitable failure.

Harmonious satisfaction of both requirements can be provided only with a carefully thought-out program that excludes any random actions.

76. All that is created in the city must match the scale of the person

Natural human dimensions should be the basis of the scale of all that is associated with his life and various activities. This refers to the scale of sizes and areas, the scale of the distances set by taking into account the natural velocity of the human movement, the scale of the day of the day, linked at the speed of the daily movement of the sun.

77. Keys of modern urban planning - in four functions: live, work, rest (in free clock), move

Urban planning expresses the essence of the era. Until our time, it was mainly engaged in one problem - the organization of movement. The city planners were limited to laying prospectuses and streets forming residential neighborhoods, the development of which was given to the deposit of a private initiative. It was a narrow understanding of the mission of the city planner.

Nowadays, urban planning is designed to perform four main functions:

First, providing a person with a healthy housing, which means accommodation of dwellings in places and in space provided by fresh air and the sun, i.e. in true "natural conditions";

Secondly, to organize the locations of the application of labor in such a way that they will turn into places of natural and joyful human labor to the places of natural and joyful human labor;

Third, it is necessary to provide everything necessary for organizing free time in such a way that it is carried out with benefit and pleasure;

Fourth, provide convenient connections between these places, creating transport networks that can satisfy the population of the city and the requirements of each of its zones.

These functions cover a huge sphere. Urban planning is a consequence of a certain way of thinking, which brought into the life of people as a result of active and purposeful activities.

78. Town planning projects will determine the structure of each of the sectors constituting four key functions, as well as their location in general terms of the city

In order to ensure the implementation of the key functions of urban planning by the Athenian Congress CIAM, they must be carried out in the widest and complete understanding of the goal. It is necessary to establish order and classify the conditions of modern life of people, the conditions of their work, the breadth of cultural needs, to then create the most favorable conditions for their satisfaction and heyday.

Pursuing these goals, urban planning will change the face of cities, destroy the established and outdated contradictions in their lives and will reveal the necessary opportunities for creative activities.

Key functions must be autonomous, they will be implemented on the basis of data dictated by climate, topography, customs. They will be a base for the development of territories and placing structures. Building cities and populated areas should be carried out on the basis of widespread use of advanced achievements of technology.

When creating and planning settlements will be taken into account the vital needs of people and every person individually, and not the mercenary interests of private groups. Urban planning should provide personal freedom and at the same time promote the flourishing of social activities.

79. The cycle of daily functions of a person - to live, work, rest (restoring forces) - will be determined in urban planning, taking into account the maximum time saving. The center of attention of urban planning and the starting point for determining the size of the territories should be the dwelling

At first glance it may seem that the desire to recreate the "natural conditions" of everyday life is associated with the unrestrained growth of cities on the plane, but in reality it is dictated by the need to regulate the budget of the time of human activity in accordance with the longitude of the day, since significant movement of a person can take away from him Time allocated to relax.

The focus of the city planner is a dwelling, so its placement in terms of the city should be coordinated with the duration of the day equal to 24 o'clock. This measure allows you to accurately distribute people's activities and correctly solve urban targets.

80. New mechanical speeds made indigenous changes to the city environment, having created a constant threat to the life of the population, causing endless traffic offers, paralyzing city traffic, as well as worsening hygiene conditions

Mechanical transport due to its high speeds was supposed to provide greater time savings. But the accumulations and congestion of the machines violate the movement, being foci of constant danger. Machines are becoming more and more harm to the health of the population of cities. The exhaust gases that hovering in the air are affecting the lungs, and the incessant noise of motors acts on the nervous system. High speeds of modern cars gave rise to love for traveling to long distances in the picturesque corners of nature. Unrestrained desire for long-distance travel violated the normal rhythm of family life and in general the rhythm of the life of society. People spend a long tedious clock behind the wheel, gradually evolving from the most natural and healthy way of movement - walking.

81. The principles of the organization of intracity and long-distance movement should be revised. It is necessary to classify the existing speeds. Reorganization of zoning, respectively, the key functions of urban planning will create convenient natural links between zones and a rational network of major highways.

Zoning, carried out in accordance with the key functions "to live, work, relax", streamlines city territories. The fourth function - the movement should pursue only one goal - to link the rest of three among themselves most convenient way. Thus, the cardinal reconstruction is inevitable.

The city and the suburban areas adjacent to it should be provided with a network of roads that allows the most rational use of the possibilities of modern vehicles. All types of transport should be classified and differentiated by providing each of them with independent paths. The reasonably organized transport network will not disturb the normal life of residential and industrial areas.

82. Urban planning is a science of three, and not about two dimensions. High-rise construction will provide the necessary conditions for organizing a modern network of roads and places of recreation through the creation and use of free territories

Key functions "live, work and relax" inside buildings require the provision of three necessary conditions - sufficient space, sun and fresh air. The dimensions of the erected structures depend not only from the occupied territory with two dimensions, but especially from the third - height. Only due to high-rise construction, urban planning will receive free territories necessary for road networks and for green spaces intended for recreation.

It should be borne in mind that inside buildings a third dimension plays a very important role, having in mind vertical movement. As for the city transport, two dimensions are used here - mainly movement on the ground, and only in exceptional cases, raising a minor height during the interchange of flows at different levels.

83. The planning of the city should be carried out simultaneously with the preparation of the draft district planning. Instead of ordinary municipal plans, there must be a single master plan of the city and the zone of its influence. The borders of the agglomeration will be determined by the radius of the city's economic relations

The initial data of the General Plan of the city should take into account the entire complex of territories economically related to the city. Economic justifies of the Plan of the city should provide for the stages of its gradual development. Similar work should be carried out in relation to the area adjacent to the city. This will make it possible to draw up the correct forecast of the complex development of the city. Then it will be possible to develop proposals for expanding or restricting individual areas, taking into account the local characteristics of this city and its environment. As a result, each settlement will receive a certain place and value in the system of the economy of the whole country. The scientific approach to planning work will allow to establish the boundaries of economic areas. Only in this case can we talk about genuine urban planning, which ensures a uniform distribution of resources across the economic district and the whole country.

84. Based on the functionally drawn up plan, the harmonic development of the city and all of its parts will be provided. As the city's territory grows, free spaces and new networks and highways will be organically fit into it.

Creating a city will be conducted as a construction carried out by a predetermined project on the basis of the instructions of the master plan. People who know how to look forward, will affect the paths of his future development. The scope of prospective construction will be provided in their project, the nature of the settlement is determined and the boundaries of the future territory will be determined.

Lounged according to plan, linked to the district layout, taking into account four key functions, the city will not be more accumulated by randomly erected buildings. The growing of the city will not create a catastrophic situation, but, on the contrary, will lead it to the flourishing. The growth of the urban population will not be accompanied by a fierce struggle for the existence characteristic of the cities created in the past.

85. It is urgent to develop development plans for each city and publish laws that ensure their implementation.

Accident will give way to the foresight, the project will be replaced by improvisation. Each project will be compiled taking into account the plan of the district planning; The territories will be distributed according to a certain intended purpose. Works on the project will be implemented immediately and gradually. The approved "Law on the Distribution of Urban Territories" will ensure the most favorable implementation of the planning, taking into account the key functions, this refers to the placement of development on the best territories and the establishment of optimal distances.

The project should also determine the places of reserve territories under the future building. The law will be able to resolve or prohibit construction, it will contribute to the implementation of rational proposals and ensure that they are carried out on the master and always corresponded to collective interests.

86. The design program should be drawn up as a result of scientific research performed by experts. It should provide for the stages of consistent development in time and space. The program should contain together information about the natural resources of territories and general topography, as well as economic data, analysis of sociological research and spiritual needs.

The development will no longer be carried out by random schemes compiled by a topographer, unsystematically placed the races of houses and land.

This will be truly a biological structure with naturally posted and therefore correctly functioning bodies. Land resources will be studied and taken into account and general research has been conducted in order to identify and best use natural factors. The main transport highways will be laid taking into account their maximum efficiency and are equipped with their intended purpose accordingly. Specially designed schedule will determine the economic development of the city. Incompheate laws will ensure the creation of benign housing, improving working conditions and reasonable use of free time.

87. Meril and dimensional scale for the architect - the city planner will be the scale of man

After the period of degradation of the farewell formation of the past century, the architecture should be re-serviced by a person.

No one is able to fulfill this mission, except for the architect, who has excellent human knowledge. The architect must discard the illusory work and mobilize his creative opportunities to create a city carrying genuine poetry.

88. The dwelling (apartment) is a fundamental core of urban planning. Combining the group of apartments in a single organism forms a living unit of the corresponding size

If the cell is a primary element in biology, the family hearth is a social medium cell. The creation of this focus, which was more than a century in power of cruel games and speculation, should turn into humane activities. Homemade focus is the primary stage of urban planning. He facilitates the life of a person, guarding his daily joy and sorrow. It must be permeated by the sun, saturated with fresh air and get its continuation outside the dwelling in the form of a number of public institutions.

In order to best organize domestic and cultural service (nutrition, education, medical care, rest), it is necessary to group apartments in residential units of the appropriate size.

89. Creating residential units will allow you to establish optimal links between the housing, work and facilities intended for recreation

The main task, which should attract the attention of the urban planner is the creation of optimal housing conditions. The conditions of production activities should also be significantly improved. Office buildings, enterprises, plants should be equipped with a necessary complex of household devices that can ensure the execution of the second function - labor.

And finally, you need to constantly take care of the third function, assumed a healthy vacation, hardening the body and spirit. All these duties are assigned to urban planners.

90. In order to fulfill this responsible task, it is necessary to widely use advanced achievements of modern science, technology and construction art.

The era of machinery gave rise to new capacities that have become one of the reasons that violated the usual order in the cities. And despite this, it was the power of our century that should contribute to their decisive reorganization. New technical means brought with them new methods of work, facilitated labor and spawned the updated measurement scales. In the history of architecture, they opened a truly new page. Modern construction is distinguished by the variety of types of buildings and the previously unprecedented complexity of constructive solutions. In order to fulfill the tasks set in front of him, the architect should at all stages to resort to the help of numerous specialists.

91. The scale of the new construction will depend on the amount of political, social and economic factors

In itself, the introduction of the Law on the development of urban areas and the introduction of new construction methods will not solve the tasks of the reconstruction of cities. To carry out this, it is necessary to have three factors: decisive, inspired and solid power, purposefully aimed at implementing developed, design decisions; the population conscious of the need to reorganize cities and persistently seeking this; Finally, a solid economic situation, allowing to take and exercise significant work.

But sometimes the circumstances may form that with an extremely unfavorable political and economic situation, the urgent and urgent need for a decisive expansion of construction scale arises. In this case, the authorities are forced to mobilize all the necessary resources and proceed to large planning and construction work.

92. In these circumstances, architecture acquires paramount importance

Architecture preserves the fate of the city. The architecture determines the structure of the dwelling, the primary urban planning plan. The quality of the built housing is depended from the architect, his ability to deliver joy to people. Architecture Groups dwellings into large complexes based on accurate calculations.

The architecture in advance determines the location of free spaces and indicates places of placement of structures. It creates continued dwelling, indicates the most favorable places for the placement of industrial enterprises and recreation areas, develops circuits of transport networks and this ensures the establishment of contacts between different zones. Architecture is responsible for organizing favorable living conditions and the beauty of the city. It indicates ways to create and reconstruct settlements, rationally plans the territory, achieving optimal living conditions for the population, harmoniously and wisely distributing elements of improvement and domestic services. Architecture is the basis of everything.

93. A huge scale of the necessary work on the reconstruction and improvement of cities and the presence of a countless plurality of private land possessions are two antagonistic circumstances.

It is necessary to immediately begin the exercise of huge reconstructive work, since all the ancient and modern cities of the world are characterized by the same defects generated similar causes. These works can only be carried out if the program implemented is part of the Unified District Planning Project and General Plan of the city. The project implementation may be carried out fragmentary subject to immediate development of a part of the territory and attribute subsequent work on a more long-term date. Numerous private ownership should be expropriated and decorated with relevant documentation. At these moments, the vile speculative operations are dangerous, which are often rooted by the largest events that are public benefit.

Expropriation under the conditions of private ownership of land and buildings is the most complex problem for the city, his environment, as well as on the scale of more extensive territories occupying entire areas.

94. Brutal contradictions noted by us are the most complex problem of the era. The task is to solve it in the shortest possible time by law, ensuring the possibility of rational development of the territory and the creation of the necessary conditions for the full satisfaction of the vital needs of the individual and the whole society

For many years all over the world, any attempts to embark on the reconstruction of cities were broken by the infinite laws of private property. Earth, the entire territory of the country should be unhindered to the town-planning needs of the fair value. When it comes to universal interests, the Earth should be subject to withdrawal without any restrictions.

The peoples suffer many deprivities and troubles due to the fact that they were not prepared for the invasion of new techniques and the consequences associated with it, disorganizing personal and social life. The neglect of urban planning laws is the cause of anarchy reigning in the development of cities and placement of industry. The absence of urban-planning legislation led to the devastation of the villages to the reckless overpopulation of cities, to excessive concentration and chaotic placement of industry. Housing workers turned into slums. Nowhere has nothing has been taken to protect people. The result is catastrophic, and the position is similarly in almost all countries. This is a sad outcome of the century of natural development of machinery.

95. Private interest should be subordinate to the interests of the team.

Being granted to himself, a person will inevitably turn out to be crushed by the difficulties that bring it on him, to overcome which alone he is unable. Forced constantly unquestioning to obey the will of the team, he loses his individuality. Personal law and collective right must be combined with each other, mutually engaged and coordinate their capabilities due to the unification of positive and constructive qualities that are peculiar to each of them. Personal law has nothing to do with greater private interest. The latter, serving minority enrichment and the objective mass of people on a pitiful existence, is worthy of merciless eradication. Private interest should be everywhere subordinated to collective interests. And then each individual will be opened all the possibilities to meet his aspirations for the well-being of the family hearth and the beauty of the settlers.

IV. Brief data on international congresses on modern architecture

1928 year. Creating Ciam.

Thanks to the generous hospitality of Mrs. Helen De Mandro, a group of modern architects-innovators gathered in 1928 in Switzerland in Sarraz Castle.

After discussing the urgent issues of architecture and construction under the program in advance developed in Paris, they decided to unite in order to help raise architecture to the level of tasks facing it. Thus, an association was created, which received the name "International Congresses in Modern Architecture" - CIAM.

Sarazraz Declaration

The following architects representing the national groups of modern architects declare the complete unity of views on the main concept of architecture and on the nature of their professional duties.

They argue that the activities referred to as "construction" is the elementary activity of a person inseparably related to the development of life. Appointment of architecture - express the spirit of the era. They declare the need to generate a new architectural concept that would satisfy the material, spiritual and aesthetic needs of modern life.

Taking into account the deep shocks caused by the era of machinery, they believe that the changes that occurred in the field of social life and the economic system should, with the fatal necessity, lead to appropriate changes in architecture.

They united in order to achieve harmonious unity of all that is characteristic of the modern world, and in order to return its authentic value to the architecture. They believe that the architecture should serve as a benefit of a person in an economic and social sense. Only in this case the architecture will be saved from the suffocating presence of academies.

Being convinced of their views, they declare that they united in order to implement their ideas.

General Development Line

The interests of the development of each country require the inseparable unity of architecture with the plans for the development of the national economy.

The desire to increase productivity and "profitability", representing the axiom of modern life, should not pursue only the commercial goals of obtaining maximum profits, it should be considered as the need for products in quantity sufficient to fully provide human needs.

Genuine profitability in construction can be achieved only as a result of rationalizing the production process, the implementation and normalization of industrial methods when creating the work of modern architecture.

Instead of applying degenerate handicraft construction methods, the architecture should urgently use the enormous advantages of modern technology, without fear that this will lead to the creation of works, in many ways differing from those built in past epochs.

Urban planning

Urban planning is the development and improvement of various settlements and territories intended for the development of material, spiritual and aesthetic life in all its individual and collective manifestations.

It covers the design and development of cities and rural settlements.

Urban planning cannot serve purely aesthetic purposes. By its essence, this is a functional phenomenon.

Three main functions that urban planning should be engaged are: 1) live; 2) work; 3) Resting. Its main tasks should be considered: a) placement on the territory; b) the organization of movement; c) the development of legislative documents.

The current state of the settlements does not provide a rational combination of the above three basic functions. It is necessary to re-postect the territories of the corresponding three zones and determine the ratios of the areas of the built-up and free territories. It should also be revised the density of the development and the system of transport networks. Instead of the meaningless distribution of land plots conducted as a result of sales, speculation and private operations, their redistribution is needed on the basis of new land legislation. A new redistribution of land on the basis of the requirements of modern urban planning will ensure fair satisfaction of private and public interest.

Architecture and public opinion

It is necessary that architects affect public opinion and acquainted it with the means and capabilities of modern architecture.

Academic education has agreed to the tastes of the general public, and the urgent issues of housing construction did not affect them at all. The public is poorly informed, so consumers are not even able to formulate their requirements for modern dwelling. In addition, the housing issues for a long time were out of sight of the majority of architects.

Common knowledge on housing does not exceed theoretical baggage obtained by people in elementary school. It is necessary that the new generation may have a clear idea of \u200b\u200bhow a full and healthy dwelling should be. The new generation of future customers of the architect prepared in this way will be able to present its demands on the vital issues of housing, which no attention was paid for too long.

Architecture and state

Architects, filled with a firm desire to work for the benefit of modern society, believe that the academies are inhibited by social progress, bowing in front of the old and ignoring the problems of dwellings in the name of a purely decorated and front architecture.

Capturing education, the academy compromise the title of architect. Due to the fact that the bulk of government orders for design passes through the Academy, the latter prevent the penetration of a new spirit into architecture.

Without the introduction of modern ideas in the case of construction and architecture, their update and rise are impossible.

Goals Ciam.

The CIAM goals are to formulate the tasks of the creative development of modern architecture, to introduce these ideas into technical, economic and social spheres, to ensure the realization of ideals of modern architecture.

1952. City family hearth. Lund Publisher Chemphrey. London (in English.)

1954. City Center. Publisher Ulriko Hep. Milan (on Ital. Yaz.)

Option number 3041198.

When you execute tasks with a short response, enter the number in the response field, which corresponds to the correct answer number, or the number, word, the sequence of letters (words) or numbers. The answer should be recorded without spaces and any additional characters. Fractional part separate from a whole decimal point. Units of measurements do not need to write. Answers to tasks 1-20 are a digit, or a sequence of numbers, or the word (phrase). Record answers without spaces, commas and other additional characters. By performing task 29, you can show your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive for you. To this end, choose only one of the proposed statements (29.1-29.5).

If the option is specified by the teacher, you can enter or download answers to the tasks with a detailed answer. The teacher will see the results of tasks with a brief response and will be able to evaluate the downloaded responses to the tasks with the detailed answer. The scores exhibited by the teacher will be displayed in your statistics.

Write down the word missed in the table.

Characteristic of activities

Answer:

In the above, find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts. Write this word.

Promotion, bond, bill, securities, check.

Answer:

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, belong to political institutions.

2) parliamentarism

3) Property

6) University

Find two terms, "dropping" from the general range, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Answer:

Choose true judgments about the formation approach to the study of society and write down the numbers under which they are specified.

1) The formation approach to the study of society was most fully formulated by K. Marx and F. Engels.

2) As part of the formation approach, the leading role in the development of society is given by an ideological and cultural factor.

3) The formational approach describes the development of society as a movement from a lower to a higher level.

4) The formational approach involves the universal nature of the laws of social development.

5) The formational approach focuses on the uniqueness and diversity of various geographic and historical forms of society.

Answer:

Install the correspondence between religions and their types: to each position given in the first column, select the appropriate position from the second column.

Answer:

In the country Z, the Center for the Study of Global Environmental Problems has been established. What problems can be the object of study in this center? Record the numbers under which they are indicated. Figures indicate in ascending order.

1) North-South Problem

2) climate warming

3) increase in the world's ocean

4) Spreading AIDS virus

5) Ozone holes

6) Global overcrowding

Answer:

Select faithful judgments about economic crises and write down the numbers under which they are specified. Figures indicate in ascending order.

1) The economic crisis is an integral part of the economic cycle.

2) Economic crises are characteristic of all types of economics.

3) The economic crisis is characterized by a sharp drop in production volumes.

4) The economic crisis is characterized by the growth of unemployment and the fall in real incomes of the population.

5) The economic crisis is always characterized by high inflation.

Answer:

Set the match between the objects of studying economic science and its sections.

Write the numbers in response by placing them in order corresponding to the letters:

Answer:

In the country, the intensive path of economic development prevails. What factors from listed below indicate this? Figures indicate in ascending order.

1) the growth of labor productivity

2) low inflation

3) employment growth

4) population savings growth

5) Increase the share of high-tech goods in export

6) distribution of resource-saving technologies

Answer:

Answer:

Choose true judgments about moral standards and write the numbers under which they are indicated. Figures indicate in ascending order.

1) The basis of moral norms are public ideas about good and evil.

2) The rules of morality develop gradually in the process of the development of society.

3) moral norms formalize in regulatory acts.

4) Morale norms differ in different social groups.

5) Compliance with moral norms is ensured by the power of state coercion.

Answer:

Among the different age categories of the population of the country Z was a sociological survey on the topic: "What social institutions do you trust the most?" Its results are reflected in the diagram.

Find out the conclusions that can be made based on the diagram and write the numbers under which they are specified. Figures indicate in ascending order.

1) In all age groups, the school enjoys the smallest confidence.

2) The most trusted churches representatives of the older age group.

3) the level of confidence in the school in the middle age group is higher than in other groups.

4) The family enjoys the greatest confidence in all age groups.

5) the level of confidence in school and church in all age groups is about the same.

Answer:

Choose true judgments about the presidential republic and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Figures indicate in ascending order.

1) The President is elected by Parliament.

2) The president heads the executive branch of state power.

3) The government is responsible both to the president and the parliament.

4) The president has no veto's right to the laws adopted by Parliament.

5) The president does not have the right to dissolve parliament.

Answer:

Install the compliance between the powers and authorities of the state authority of the Russian Federation: to each position given in the first column, select the appropriate position from the second column.

Write the numbers in response by placing them in order corresponding to the letters:

Answer:

Part n advocates the preservation of an existing political system and economic structure. What other positions of the Party N program indicate that it adheres to conservative ideology? Record the numbers under which they are indicated. Figures indicate in ascending order.

1) Active Foreign Policy

2) Protection of traditional religious and national values

3) tax cuts for large business

4) Support for the development of science and education

5) Natural Social Inequality

6) Ensuring the rights and freedoms of man and citizen

Answer:

What are the responsibilities for citizens by the Constitution of the Russian Federation? Record the numbers under which they are indicated. Figures indicate in ascending order.

1) pay legally established taxes and fees

2) work for the benefit of society

3) receive secondary general education

4) keep nature and environment

5) Protect Fatherland

Answer:

Choose faithful judgments about disciplinary responsibility and write the numbers under which they are specified. Figures indicate in ascending order.

1) Disciplinary responsibility arises in the event of a violation by an employee of labor discipline.

2) The execution of a disciplinary misconductor will always entail the use of disciplinary responsibility to it.

3) The imposition of disciplinary recovery is always issued by the written order of the employer.

4) The employer can apply to the employee any disciplinary responsibility measures not prohibited by law.

5) An employee can challenge the disciplinary imposition imposed on it.

Answer:

Set the correspondence between legal facts and their views: to each position given in the first column, select the appropriate position from the second column.

Write the numbers in response by placing them in order corresponding to the letters:

Answer:

In relation to Mikhail Romanov, a criminal case was initiated on charges of causing grievous harm to health. Under what conditions, Mikhail is not subject to criminal responsibility? Write down the numbers under which the appropriate conditions are indicated. Figures indicate in ascending order.

1) harm caused in the affect state.

2) harm caused in the state of the necessary defense.

3) harm caused in a state of emergency.

4) harm caused in a state of alcoholic intoxication

5) harm caused in the state of insaneness.

6) The harm is caused by the propulsion of heavy life circumstances.

Answer:

Read the following text in which a number of words are missed.

Select from the proposed list of the words you want to insert into the place of pass.

Social ____________ (a) characterizes the differences in the position in relation to each other of people and their associations. It existed in society at different stages of its development, but for each period there were also certain features and signs inherent in this era. People in society, as we know from history, were not equal in our position, there was always a division into rich and poor, respected

and despised who have achieved success and losers.

For an ancient and medieval society, a division was characterized by ______________ (b), that is, groups of people who have certain rights and _____________ (c) transmitted by inheritance. Some of these groups had _____________ (d) - special rights, towering these people and allow them to live at the expense of others. An example is the nobility in the Russian Empire. And, on the contrary, the overwhelming majority of people in the country were devoid of even elementary human rights. The serfs peasants were the property of landowners, they could be sold and buying, and even children separately from their parents.

With the beginning of the industrial revolution, the structure of society has changed, the main social groups become ___________ (e). The new division is carried out, first of all, at the place of people in the economic system, in relation to _______________ (e), in terms of the amount of income they receive. Such social affiliation is not inherited, social mobility is not regulated in any way, much depends on the person himself.

Words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word can be used only once. Choose a sequential one word after another, mentally filling each pass. Note that words in the list are more than you need to fill the pass.

List of terms:

In this below, the table shows the letters denoting missed words. Write in the table under each letter number of your chosen word.

Write the numbers in response by placing them in order corresponding to the letters:

Answer:

(K. S. Gadzhiev)

What three goals of state sovereignty are indicated by the author? Attracting social science, facts of social life, name another goal of the state sovereignty, not specified in the text.

Read the text and execute the tasks 21-24.

The modern state is unthinkable without the idea of \u200b\u200bsovereignty ...

It is difficult to establish a source of state sovereignty. But nevertheless it is a real phenomenon. In this area there is no power above the state. She is sovereign over all other authorities in this territory. As P. I. Novgorod residents noted, the supreme power is one and indivisible in the sense that it is under no circumstances "can not allow another power standing above her and next to her."

The state as a subject of law protects society, state education, the indivisibility of a single territory is finally collective ... From this point of view, the universality of sovereignty is that the government is worth over all other specific forms and manifestations of power in this territory. Therefore, it is natural that state sovereignty includes such fundamental principles, as the unity and indivisibility of the territory, the inviolability of territorial borders and non-interference in the internal affairs. If any foreign state or external force violate the boundaries of this state or force him to accept this or that decision that does not meet the national interests of his people, then we can talk about the violation of its sovereignty. And this is a clear sign of the weakness of this state and its inability to ensure its own sovereignty and national-state interests.

Sovereignty is designed to provide ... the preservation of legal and power systems. It provides criteria for distinguishing the state from the dust state state, state law - from primitive law, etc. The state wrote the French lawyer of the XIX century. A. Esmen, "There is a subject and support of public power." This power that significantly recognizes the highest or competing power in relations with which it is managed is called sovereignty. It possesses two parties: internal sovereignty, or the right to command all citizens constituting the nation, and even by all who live in the national territory, and external sovereignty, designed to provide territorial integrity and non-interference in the internal affairs on the part of external forces ...

Another important tool and attribute of the state providing its versatility is the law. In a certain sense, the law is the expression of sovereignty. The law possesses the form of universality in the sense that his legitimacy and authority must recognize everything, and, accordingly, everyone must obey it.

(K. S. Gadzhiev)

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What three principles of sovereignty calls the author? Using the facts of social life and personal social experience, provide an example of how each of these principles is implemented in the state's activities.

Read the text and execute the tasks 21-24.

The modern state is unthinkable without the idea of \u200b\u200bsovereignty ...

It is difficult to establish a source of state sovereignty. But nevertheless it is a real phenomenon. In this area there is no power above the state. She is sovereign over all other authorities in this territory. As P. I. Novgorod residents noted, the supreme power is one and indivisible in the sense that it is under no circumstances "can not allow another power standing above her and next to her."

The state as a subject of law protects society, state education, the indivisibility of a single territory is finally collective ... From this point of view, the universality of sovereignty is that the government is worth over all other specific forms and manifestations of power in this territory. Therefore, it is natural that state sovereignty includes such fundamental principles, as the unity and indivisibility of the territory, the inviolability of territorial borders and non-interference in the internal affairs. If any foreign state or external force violate the boundaries of this state or force him to accept this or that decision that does not meet the national interests of his people, then we can talk about the violation of its sovereignty. And this is a clear sign of the weakness of this state and its inability to ensure its own sovereignty and national-state interests.

Sovereignty is designed to provide ... the preservation of legal and power systems. It provides criteria for distinguishing the state from the dust state state, state law - from primitive law, etc. The state wrote the French lawyer of the XIX century. A. Esmen, "There is a subject and support of public power." This power that significantly recognizes the highest or competing power in relations with which it is managed is called sovereignty. It possesses two parties: internal sovereignty, or the right to command all citizens constituting the nation, and even by all who live in the national territory, and external sovereignty, designed to provide territorial integrity and non-interference in the internal affairs on the part of external forces ...

Another important tool and attribute of the state providing its versatility is the law. In a certain sense, the law is the expression of sovereignty. The law possesses the form of universality in the sense that his legitimacy and authority must recognize everything, and, accordingly, everyone must obey it.

(K. S. Gadzhiev)

The state as a subject of law protects society, state education, the indivisibility of a single territory is finally collective ... From this point of view, the universality of sovereignty is that the government is worth over all other specific forms and manifestations of power in this territory. Therefore, it is natural that state sovereignty includes such fundamental principles, as the unity and indivisibility of the territory, the inviolability of territorial borders and non-interference in the internal affairs. If any foreign state or external force violate the boundaries of this state or force him to accept this or that decision that does not meet the national interests of his people, then we can talk about the violation of its sovereignty. And this is a clear sign of the weakness of this state and its inability to ensure its own sovereignty and national-state interests.

Sovereignty is designed to provide ... the preservation of legal and power systems. It provides criteria for distinguishing the state from the dust state state, state law - from primitive law, etc. The state wrote the French lawyer of the XIX century. A. Esmen, "There is a subject and support of public power." This power that significantly recognizes the highest or competing power in relations with which it is managed is called sovereignty. It possesses two parties: internal sovereignty, or the right to command all citizens constituting the nation, and even by all who live in the national territory, and external sovereignty, designed to provide territorial integrity and non-interference in the internal affairs on the part of external forces ...

Another important tool and attribute of the state providing its versatility is the law. In a certain sense, the law is the expression of sovereignty. The law possesses the form of universality in the sense that his legitimacy and authority must recognize everything, and, accordingly, everyone must obey it.

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Choose one of the proposed statements and on its basis write mini-essay.

Indicate at its discretion, one or more basic ideas affected the author of the topic and expand it (their). With the disclosure of the designated (s) of the main ideas (s) in reasoning and conclusions, use social scientific knowledge (relevant concepts, theoretical provisions), illustrating their facts and examples from public life and personal social experience, examples from other educational items.

To illustrate the theoretical positions, reasoning and conclusions with you, give at least two facts / examples from various sources. Each crucial fact / example should be formulated expanded and is clearly connected to the illustrated position, reasoning, withdrawal.

29.1 Philosophy: "The doubts that the theory does not allow you to allow you to practice." (L. Fairbach)

29.2 Economy: "Competition is centralized planning carried out by many independent individuals." (F. Hayek)

29.3 Sociology, social psychology: "A person does not bother, the personality becomes." (A. N. Leontiev)

29.4 Political science: "Morality without politics is useless. Politics without morality misfortune. " (A. P. Sumarokov)

29.5 Jurisprudence: "The court examines not only what was mined on the preliminary investigation, but also as it was mined." (A.F. Koni)

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On the next page you will be asked to check them yourself.

Complete testing, referred to answers, see solutions.

Asceticism - Voluntary restriction by man of his needs: Refusal from a variety of food, from warm and beautiful clothes, at home, from the joys of the family, from entertainment, etc. The purpose of Christian asceticism is exemption from the needs of the "sinful body" for the "salvation of a clean soul", spiritual connection with God.

Antique Greco-Roman Civilization - Unity of the countries of the Mediterranean in the boundaries of the Roman Empire and the cultures of the ancient Greeks and the Romans. The centers of the life of ancient civilization were self-governing trade and craft cities (communities of citizens) surrounded by agricultural farms. Antique writing was created in Latin (Roman) and Greek. Antique philosophy and literature proclaimed the freedom and dignity of a person, his ability to achieve personal success in labor, science, art, politics, sports, war. Antique architecture, sculpture, painting emphasized the beauty of nature and human body, love men and women, loyalty to debt and civil feat. Antique laws defended the equality of free citizens, their private property (including slaves), joint participation in government management and its protection.

Corvee - Free forced labor dependent peasants in the farm landowner (feudal).

Baskaki - Chanov officials of the Mongol Empire, who managed individual territories that were responsible for collecting taxes.

Bershey diplomas - Monuments of the writing of Russia, who pose everyday records made on the back of the birch bark with a special stick - wrote.

Boyare - the most significant and preferred inhabitants of Russia, landowners-markers; As a rule, they carried the military and civil service.

Epics - Ancient Russian folk tales on the exploits of heroes.

Bible - Assembly of the Holy Books of Judaism (Old Testament) and Christianity (Old and New Testament).

Buddhism - Religion, the creator of which is the prince of one of the ancient Indian principalities of Sidhartha Gautam (V c. BC. E.). According to Buddhist, Gautama, seeing evil and suffering, reigning in society, retired from people and for a long time in the jungle under the tree, reflecting on the reasons for evil, plunging into the world of his soul. So the truth was opened, and he became a Buddha - "enlightened". Buddha argued that earthly life is a suffering that is generated by a lot of human desires. After the death of the soul leaves the earthly world to the world of spiritual, but circle of reborn Returns to Earth to a new body, and suffering continues. To get rid of suffering, you need to overcome all your desires, then the soul will break out of the circle of rebirth and falls into nirvana - The state of rest and happiness. To bring themselves to Nirvana, a person needs to avoid extremes during his life, be calm, indulge in spiritual reflection and make good actions. Creation of evil deeds, a man will plunge himself in the bunch of painful rebirths, diseases, poverty. Faster things can bring their souls to Nirvana buddhist monks - People who have been abandoned from earthly life (from the family, acquiring wealth, enlightenment). With her example, the prayers of the monks help ordinary people to go to Nirvana, and those in return should share with the monks of food.

Barbarian - The name of all peoples and tribes are not familiar with the ancient Greco-Roman culture that established in the Roman Empire.

Vassal - feudal, who received land with peasants from the larger Vassal and who gave an oath to serve him - to be in his army with a weapon, to help in management, etc.

Great relocation of peoples - Mass resettlement of Germanic, Slavic and other tribes in Eurasia.

Veche urban - The meeting of all the boyars, merchants and artisans of the city, with the decisions of which had to be considered a prince and landange.

Vese tribal - People's Assembly, where they discussed and solved the questions important for the whole tribe.

Vira - A large fine, awarded under the laws of "Russian truth" for the murder of a free person.

Voevoda - The leader of the princely troops, which led individual shelves in the campaigns.

Moipel - officials of the Russian state, rulers of volosts.

Magi (lead, sorcerers) - The pagan Slavic priests, who, according to the ideas of Slavs, could negotiate with the powerful forces of nature (pagans and spirits).

Beach - Land ownership type (father's possession), which was inherited in one family from his father to his son.

"Eastern Despocence"- adopted in Europe the designation of many monarchy states of the East. The head of state (despot) is considered to be a deity or a sacred governor of God on Earth. The orders of the despot should be immediately and unconditionally. At any time, one decision can be one of his subjects to deprive life, freedom or property.

Revival - Epoch in the development of European culture (XIV-XVI centuries), transitional from medieval culture to the culture of the new time. Distinctive features of the culture of Renaissance: 1) Recycling (noncumbraction); 2) Humanism - appeal to man as the highest start, approval of the ideal of a liberated creative person, in which the beauty of the body and soul, feelings and thoughts combines; 3) Appeal to the cultural heritage of antiquity: the search and restoration of the ancient Greek-Roman buildings, sculptures, paintings, manuscripts; Imitation antique samples.

Town - settlement, which is the center of power, crafts and trade to surround it; As a rule, it is obscured by the fortress walls ("fence").

State - Organization of managing society, people who live on some particular territory (within the borders of the state). In each state exist manadgement Department, that is, professional officials officers; system of laws (right); legal Procedure Protection Services (City Guardian, Police, Police); army to protect the boundaries, independence and interests of the state; collection taxes from the population for the content of the army, police, officials and the fulfillment of other state tasks.

State fragmentation - A condition in which the Unified State is divided into many independent, but at the same time the memory of the country's unity is maintained: as a rule, the general name, the special title of the head of state (without endowment of its real authorities), the meaning of the old capital, the unity of the language, the customs of culture, religion residents.

Duke - the title of the representative of the feudal nobility in Western Europe, as a rule, a descendant of an independent leader of the German tribe

Guests - merchants in Russia, engaged in the long "overseas" trade.

Graph -Titul a representative of feudal nobility in Western Europe.

Hryvnia - 1) Decoration - a massive twisted ring from copper, silver or gold. 2) the main monetary unit of Russia IX-XIV centuries. - Silver ingot.

Humanism - Appeal to man as to the highest start, approval of the ideal of a liberated creative personality, in which the beauty of the body and soul, feelings and thoughts are combined.

Far Eastern civilization - The cultural community of East Asia (China, Japan, Korea, partly - Vietnam, Mongolia, Tibet), which established in the Middle Ages. Among the values \u200b\u200b(main features), we can distinguish the weft of the religious traditions of Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and local creeds; The spread of literature using writing based on Chinese characters. According to the tradition in the "right state", all power should belong to the emperor - "Son of the Supreme Divine". He manages his subjects as a father of the family, and its officials must organize a fair life in the country. In the "Proper Society", each person is part of some community, a layer, and the downstream subordinate to the higher as the "younger" "seniors", and all together carry duties before the state. In the "Relief Economy", the state should possess the supreme property over all the land and property of the subjects, to organize a "proper" economic life.

Tribute - Mandatory gifts subject to our ruler.

Taoism - Religion and philosophy that have developed in ancient China on the basis of the teachings of the Lao Tzu sage (VI-V centuries. BC). The main book is the "Book of Tao (path, road) and DE (good strength)." "Dao" - in Chinese way or the road that moves, the whole world develops. Everything in the world consists of two halves (started) - Yin and Yang (female and male beginnings, dark and light). Submitting the way Tao, they flow into each other, create the balance and beauty of the world. This natural order is violated by people who seek to have an increasing number of things, their affairs in the world of passion. A man walking along the road of his life should not strive to change something, remake. He needs to understand his way (his Dao), and then he will be able to follow the order established by nature, will be healthy, and in the end will become an immortal being, "able to fly and change together with the time of year." To come to this, Dao (a follower of Taoism) need to get rid of the most harmful actions: "Do not kill, not indulge in depraved pleasures, not torturing your mind, not to steal, not to say what is contrary to the entry of the heart." In addition, to merge with Dao (expensive nature), it is necessary to learn to communicate with the spirits of nature: the celestial lords, the spirits of every stone, plants, animal, the phenomena of nature, dead people. In the silence and tranquility of small temples, Taoists pray perfumes about help in good deeds, and magic spells expel spirits if they make evil.

Dvelverie - a combination of beliefs of residents of Russia X-XIII centuries. pagan and Christian ideas.

Nobles - The estate served in the sovereign yard, and later in the state army of people who received land ownership for their service.

Biscuit - The method of agriculture, in which half of the pashnya was used under the sowing, and the other half at this time "rested."

Diacon - The lowest spiritual San (Chin) of the priest in the Orthodox Church, the assistant of the parish priest.

Sofa - Council consisting of viziers and officials with Turkish Sultan, Khan Golden Horde.

Old Russian nationality - Unity of residents of Russia XI-XIII centuries, associated with the general language, uniform beliefs, common techniques of economic activity. Her predecessors are the tribes of the eastern Slavs and their closest neighbors of the Balts and Finno-Ugroms, and the heirs are modern peoples: Belarusians, Ukrainians and Russians.

Dyak - official of the central apparatus in the Russian state.

Dervish - (from the Persian word "beggar) Muslim ascetic, who, abandoning wealth, conducts life in wanderings, and through a mystical dance and exhaust prayer is looking for direct communication, mergers with Allah to understand the world and its place in it.

Dynasty - A number of consistently ruling monarchs from one kind, replacing each other by the right of kinship and the laws of the Preconsession.

Druzhina - Condemned around the prince (tribal leader) Association of warriors (friends), who served the prince, making the war with their profession, and lived at the expense of military extraction and income of Prince (Dani).

Bishop - One of the highest degrees of the priesthood in the Christian Church, the head of the church region - episcopy.

Heresy - Religious doctrine, opposing the dominant church concern.

Dependent peasant (farmer) - A community-community living on Earth owned by Mr. (Senor-feudal), who has the right to life use and maintain its own farm, but obliged to pay for the lifts and walk on the bargain in favor of his Mr. (Señora-feudal).

Law - approved by the state a compulsory rule of the behavior of citizens, for the violation of which the state punishment is relying (fine, prison, etc.)

Purchases - Temporarily addicted people who have been in hungry years to have been in the womb of Coupu (any property: grain, cattle, guns) and had to work it.

Igumen. - Abbot (head) of the monastery in the Orthodox Church.

Hierarchy - Location of service ranks in the order of their submission (hierarchical staircase)

Icon - Christian image (image) of Christ, Our Lady, Saints and other spiritual forces. Written paints on a wooden board, the icon was to betray not external bodily similarity, but the spiritual content is thought, feelings. Creating an icon, the icon painter hoped by prayers and pure lifestyle to receive the help of the Higher Forces. Then God, the Virgin, the Saint, whom the icon painter wrote, "drove it with his hand," and part of their spiritual strength was transferred to the icon. She became a window from the earthly world in the world of heaven, spiritual. Prayer facing such an icon could be heard that whose image it represented. And in response to prayer, the spiritual power of the saint rushed into the earthly world and did a miracle - healed from the disease, assigned the enemy army from the walls of the city, helped overcome hatred and malice.

Empire - A large state that has united (as a rule, as a result of conquests) of territory with a different population, economy, traditions, but managed from one center, as a rule, by one person (emperor). The head of the empire is often considered a governor of God on Earth or even a living God.

Indian civilization - The cultural community of South and Southeast Asia (India, Burma, Thailand, Indonesia) developed in the Middle Ages (India, Burma, Thailand, Indonesia). Among the values \u200b\u200b(main features), you can allocate: the confrontation of the religious traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam; Society division by caste - hereditary, fully closed layers defining a person's profession, household customs, a circle of communication and marriage. According to the tradition of "the right state", the country should defend the country, to exist at the expense established by the custom, the tax from neighboring communities and not interfere in their internal economic life. Most of the accumulated wealth should be in community and state ownership, and not in personal.

Hinduism - Religion prevailing in ancient India as a result of the development of ancient pagan beliefs. The main sacred texts are "Vedas" - collections of ancient myths. Hinduism recognizes thousands of the ancient Indian gods and introduced by new teachings (for example, Buddha). The mains are the three - Brahma (creator of the world), Vishnu (the keeper of world orders) and Shiva (destroying and building the world anew). Each of the thousands of gods are emitted by temples. Each Hindu (the follower of Hinduism) can take prayers to the Divine, who he worship himself, his caste, his countrymen. As a result, there are many different teachings inside Hinduism. Here at the same time there are "Kama Sutra" (the science of love pleasures) and the teachings of yogis about the ascetic life of the hermit, freeing his soul from the bodily shell to communicate with the highest forces. According to the ideas of the Hindus of the soul of a person after death, he passes in a circle of rebirths hellish torments, paradise pleasures and again returns to Earth, embodied in the body of a born baby, in an animal or plant. From Buddhism, Hinduism accepted the idea that this eternal rebirth returns a person to suffering from earthly life. The goal of a person is to escape from the circle of rebirths so that his soul goes "by the gods" to freedom and bliss. Evil actions, contradictory laws and caste rules, a man learns his soul, and in the next rebirth he will have to pay his guilt - he will be born in the lowest, despised Caste, will be animals, will move away from the liberation of the soul. To get closer to liberation, a person can simply honestly fulfill the debt to him (a warrior - to defend, the farmers - plow, the servant is to obey). You can also reflect and comprehend the wisdom of holy books, and here a special role belongs to the Higher Indian Caste - Brahmanov-Priestsov, who can be read and interpret for other sacred books "Vedas."

Inquisition - body of the Catholic Church, looking for, fret and punishing her opponents.

Art - Creativity of people creating artistic images (literary, musical, sculptural, etc.) what they see, feel, realize.

Islamic civilization (Islamic world) - The cultural community of countries in which the Islamic religion dominates the cultural community in the Middle Ages. You can select some common features. IN cultural life - the spread of literature that uses writing based on the Arab alphabet; The idea that all the main truths are open to people in the Qur'an, but they still need to understand (this led to the widespread development of science in the Islamic world); The idea that the only creator in the world is Allah, and poets and artists are "tools" that Allah complements the world (this determined the flowering of the arts in the Islamic world). IN "Proper society" Orthodox Muslims should be equal to the face of Allah and constitute a single community of Muslims (devotees of Allah). IN "Right Muslim state" The ruler (the deputy prophet - Khalif) rules in accordance with the Islamic norms of the Quran and Sharia (Code of Laws), which do not share power to secular and spiritual: sin (the crime of the Religious Commandments of God) is a state crime and for each of the sins spent punishment from the authorities. In the organisation economic Life The Supreme Ruler has the supreme property on land and property, is responsible for the prosperity of ordressive, including for the development of private trade and entrepreneurship, which is limited to the ban on usury and the obligation to pay the tax in favor of the poor.

Islam - Religion, the creator of which is the prophet Mohammed - Arab Trader VII. The Sacred Scripture of Islam Koran is considered to be the words of a single God - Allah, with whom he acted through Mohammed to people. Islam recognizes Mohammed by the last prophet chosen by a single God after people (followers of Judaism and Christianity) "wrong" understood Abraham (Ibrahim), Moses (Musa) and Jesus (ISU). Thus, Islam is based on the traditions of the biblical religion of ancient Jews and Christianity. In the representations of Muslims, the world also consists of paradise (world of heaven), the earthly world of people and hell (the world of Satan - "Shaitan"). People commit sins and thereby lick their immortal soul, which Shaitan takes into hell. To be saved, a person must enter the community of devotees to God - Muslims: to recognize the one God of Allah, it prays every day to honor the post a month Ramadan, pay the tax in favor of the poor, to commit at least once in the life of Pilgrimage (Hajj) to the Sanctuary of Kaaba, in the wall Which of which "black stone", this people Allah as a reminder of the lost paradise. Muslims should avoid sins and treat each other as the brothers, "wish your brother to your own same, what wishes yourself." For the approval of true faith, Musulmanin needs to make jihad ("effort") - to deal with evil in itself in the environment.

Historical source - Preserved from past times to this day, an object (recording, subject, building, tale, etc.), which carries information (information) about life in the past.

Judaism - Religion of the Jewish people, arising at the turn of the II-I Millennium BC. In the Hebrew Kingdom of Israel as revered by the Unified God Yahweh (gentlemen) in the only Jerusalem temple. After the final destruction of the Romans (in the first century) of the Jewish state, the temple was destroyed and the Jews scattered in various countries created another form of divine services - modern Judasim. The Holy Scripture of Judaism is the Jewish Bible (in Christianity, called the Old Testament) and Talmud - a meeting of the books of Jewish wise men's scattering era. According to the concepts of the Bible in the world, there is a single almighty God, the Creator of the whole and the first people, which, unlike all other creatures, he created on a spiritual "image and likeness to his" - ended in freedom to decide how to do. However, the first people of Adam and Eve violated the commandments of the Lord, were driven out of Paradise to Earth, and since then, their descendants have constantly sinned, killing each other, warming, worshiping the fictional gods. To explain to people to do, the Lord concluded the covenant (Treaty) with the Prophet Abraham (the ancestor of the Jews): Abraham and his descendants will be made the commandments of God, and God will defend this people, elected to them to enlighten people. Subsequently, in confirmation of his covenant, the Lord bestowed by Jews through the Prophet Moses Stone Plates (told) with ten commandments: to worship only one God, do not depict it, not to mention his name VSE, keep the holy day of rest - Saturday, read the parents, do not kill, do not commit , do not steal, not false witness. The troubles who collapsed to the Jewish people, Judaism considers as a punishment for the violation of the commandments, as the severity of the Jewish glory. The troubles will have to end when the messenger of God comes to the world - the tsar-relief, "Panazan", Messiah. With it, the souls of the righteous will be resurrected in new bodies and will arise "Heavenly Jerusalem", where all the Jews will be transferred. At the same time, anyone who accepted Judaism can become Judea. After scattering the Jews, in all villages where they lived, Judaist communities were created. Worships spend in prayer houses - synagogues - specially trained in the highest Jewish schools of Bible and rites - rabbis (teachers).

Kagan - The title of the Supreme Ruler in some states created by the Turkic-speaking tribes of the cattle breeders-nomads, the power of Kagan was considered to be given by the sky.

Cossacks - The estate of the Russian state, living on the outskirts of the country and the agriculture, hunting and military fishery.

Caravanserai - Indoor market, shopping warehouse and a hotel for merchants in the cities of the East.

Catholicism - The western branch of Christianity represented by the Unified Catholic Church headed by the Pope, with a significant independence of monastic orders. The most noticeable differences from Orthodoxy: the statement that the Holy Spirit comes from God Father, and from Son; Vera in the existence of purification, where on the eve of the paradise of the soul is exempt from sins; Use for sacred texts and worship only Latin language; Decoration of temples not only icons, but also statues; Use for the chief sacrament - communion - fresh bread (without yeast); Bread and wine ("body and blood of Christ") priests are sesshed, and simple believers - only bread; Parish priests, as well as monks, do not have the right to marry.

Catholic civilization - The cultural community of European countries in the Middle Ages, in which the Catholic branch of Christianity dominates. You can highlight some common features of the Catholic civilization. IN cultural life - the spread of literature using Latin and alphabet; the development of the tradition to explain the divine Christian truths by the logical arguments of the mind, disseminating universities and secular science on this basis; Development In addition to church-ascetic culture, also a secular city, knightly culture, charming human feelings. IN organization of power - the existence of many independent states united by the spiritual authority of the Pope Roman, who fought for the Supreme Secondary Power with sovereigns (kings, emperors); The presence of self-governed class associations (monastic and knightly orders, handicraft shops, merchant guilds) and the tradition of entering into contracts between sovereigns and elected representatives of estates (about paying taxes). In public division - traditions to celebrate personal merits and the achievements of individual people in society, enter into contracts on the rights and obligations of different estates (between feudalities about the vassal service, between feudalities and peasants on the contesions, between feudalities and cities of free self-government). In economic life - the predominance of feudal relations and feudal farms with conditional (feudal) property, but at the same time - the development of trade and craft cities, which strengthened private property and private farms.

Cyrillic - Slavic alphabet, created on the basis of the Greek alphabet by Brothers Kirill and Methodius.

Prince - elected military leader of the Slavic tribe, subsequently (in the IX-XV centuries) - the title of the hereditary head of the principality of the principality.

Prince Great - adopted in Russia the title of the Supreme Ruler of the State.

Prince servitude - Former independent Lord of the Principality, which in the Peerod of the creation of the Russian state entered the service to the Great Prince of Moscow.

Prince Specific "The ruler of half-pointed possession (lots) in the principality, which himself collected a tribute in his lot, gained a squad, whisked the court.

Konung - Leader (Prince) in the Scandinavian peoples.

Confucianism - Religion and philosophy that established in ancient China on the basis of the teachings of the sage Confucius (V c. BC), described in the book "Conversations and judgments". Confucianism, like pagan Chinese beliefs, does not divide the world on earth and heaven. In a single world, in addition to people, there are many spirits - rivers and forests, rain and wind, home focus, wealth and longevity, as well as spirits of dead people - simple and great wise men. Above the whole world of people and spirits reign the will of the Great Sky. To get help from spirits and heaven, Confucianian build temples, read prayers, bring sacrifices. However, the main goal of Confucianism in another is to properly organize the life of society, so that people overcome wild beasts in themselves and maintain human culture. To do this, it is necessary to accurately comply with the rules of action (rituals) that bind the sky with people, and people are with each other. It is necessary to honor the ancestors who understood and recorded these rules of action (rituals). We must love people - "not to do another of what you do not want ourselves," "answer in good good, and for evil - justice." We must know your place in society - to obey the eldest and take care of the younger. Only "books, serunen people" can organize such life in the state - officials who study the wisdom of ancestors, know the "sky of the sky", rightly and humiliately manage the people and obey the emperor - "Son of the sky".

Koran - The Holy Book of Muslims is a collection of prophecies Mohammed, who passed the words of Allah (a single God).

King - The title of the head of the monarchist state (kingdom) in Europe.

Blood Revenge is a primitive custom, according to which members of one kind of Mustil for any insult inflicted their relatives.

Kurultay - Collection of Mongolian nobility.

Chronicles - Event records of Russian history, located by year.

Locality - The procedure for appointing the highest state (boyars) posts in accordance with the antiquity and merit of the genus, from which a person takes place, and not his personal qualities.

Mosque - Muslim religious building, premises for prayer.

Minaret - The tower, attached to the mosque with which believers convened on prayer.

World Religion is one of the religions spread among many nations of the world.

Mystic - A person who believes in the mysterious supernatural world and the possibility of direct communication with him.

Metropolitan - One of the highest degrees of the priest in the Orthodox Church, the head of several episcopes.

Mosaic - An image made of colored stones.

Monarchy - The state, at the head of which is the only ruler - the monarch who transmits his power to inheritance.

Monarchy The estate-representative - the state in which the monarch manages the country, relying on solving the collection of elected representatives of different estates

Monastery - Community of monks or nuns who take uniform rules.

Monk - Member of the Religious Community, who adopted vows (promises) of poverty and celibacy and disaster from the world

Morality - A combination of moral norms (rules) of human behavior in society.

Murza - Comarters in the army of the Golden Horde

Muslim - A man, confessing Islam, who worshiping Allah.

People - the community of people who unites self-calf (Name of the people), one language of communication, special lifestyle, customs.

Natural economy - The farm in which almost everything necessary for life is made within the economy, and not for sale, but for its own consumption.

The science - Cognition by people of the laws of nature and society by observing, nominating versions (hypotheses), checking their practical experience and the creation of theories, systems of scientific knowledge explaining the world.

Moral - internal, spiritual qualities of a person who determine the rules of his behavior.

Monetary marks - The amount of money that the peasant was to constantly pay the owner of the Earth for the right to stay on it.

Natural lifts - Part of the crop and other income of the peasant economy, which the peasant was to constantly pay the owner of the Earth for the right to stay on it.

Public stratification - The process of destruction of the generic system, during which layers of a new civilized society are distinguished from the community.

Society - A lot of people who unite joint life and activities under adopted rules (morality, laws). All actions of people in society can be divided into four main areas: farm (work on the production and distribution of everything that is necessary for life) public division (separation of people to different groups, layers, organization inside society), power (management of the life of society to establish order), spiritual culture (Cognizing people of the world through science, art, religion and all achievements in these areas).

Society - A lot of people who unite joint life and activities under adopted rules (morality, laws). All the actions of people in society can be divided into four main areas: the economy (work in the production and distribution of everything that is necessary for life), public division (separation of people to different groups, layers, organization within society), power (management of the Company's life for establishment order), spiritual culture (knowledge of people of the world through science, art, religion and all achievements in these areas).

Floating - The main servant-management of the farm Votchina.

Military urban - Armed forces of the city, consisting of non-professional warriors - citizens.

Earth Principality Essay - Part of the army of Russian principalities and land of the IX-XIV centuries, consisting of non-professional warriors - artisans, merchants, farmers.

Tribal militia - Armed forces of the tribe, consisting of all combat-ready men of the generic communities.

Panya - a privileged estate of large serunel landowners in Poland and the Grand Duch of Lithuanian.

Patriarch - The highest degree of priest in the Orthodox Church, the head of an independent church organization.

Primitive society (Primitive system) - the first stage of the development of society, in which people live in parking or in villages, are combined into generic communities and tribes, which are carried out by folk assemblies, elders and leaders, knowledge is stored and transferred mainly with the help of oral legends.

Tribe - The union of generic communities, which unites a single elected leader, a common protected area, the custom of marriage conclusions, general beliefs.

Elderly - An established law fee of the peasant the owner of the Earth for the right to go to other land, to another owner.

Founder - existing in East Slavic lands in the IX-X centuries. The custom of the princess trace of subjectable lands to collect Dani (in people).

Estate - The conditional land ownership, which was issued by the nobles of the Russian state, subject to service in the army without the right to sell, transfer to heirs. For the negligent service, the sovereign could deprive the landowner of his land.

Poks - Parish priests in the Russian Orthodox Church.

Land - The name of the trading and craft part of the city in Russia.

Posadan. - The ruler of the city, "planted" (appointed) by Prince and from his behalf a peak court who collected tribute.

Posal People - Transmitted Residents of Urban Posads in Russia, whom the prince "planted at Grad" (allowed to build a house next to the princely fortress).

Orthodoxy - The eastern branch of Christianity represented by several churches, which lead patriarchs and church cathedrals. The most noticeable differences from Catholicism: the statement that the Holy Spirit occurs only from God Father; No idea of \u200b\u200bpurgatory for sinners; use for the sacred texts and worship of Greek and other languages; ban on the decoration of temples statues; Use for the main sacrament - communion - yeast bread (baked on yeast); Simple believers on a par with priests are tested and bread and wine ("body and blood of Christ"); Parish priests, in contrast to the monks, have the right to marry.

Orthodox civilization (Orthodox world) - the cultural community of countries in the Middle Ages, in which the Orthodox branch of Christianity dominates. You can select some common features of the Orthodox Civilization. IN cultural life - the spread of literature using both Greek and local national languages \u200b\u200band alphabets; Sustainable idea that most divine truths are not available to human mind, they can be comprehended only by faith and feelings, with the help of Divine Revelation, and development on this basis of special art of icon painting; The predominance of church-ascetic culture. In the organization of power - an idea of \u200b\u200ban ideal state as a centralized Orthodox Empire (Kingdom), in which we separately exist and coordinated in Symphony of secular power (king, emperor, prince) and spiritual power (patriarch and church cathedral); The tradition of subordination of layers and communities of strong state power. In a public device - The tradition does not emphasize personal merits and achieve individual people in society. The noticeable role of the state in the organization economic Life, coexistence of state, conditional, community and private property.

Orders - departments of the central office of the management of the Russian state.

Assigning farm - Household hunters and collectors who do not grow food, and with the help of guns are mined and assigned to what is grown in nature.

Parishes - communities of the believers of the Orthodox Church in Russia.

Producing farm - Agriculture and cattle breeding, in which people learned to produce (grow) food, and not to assign what is grown in nature.

pleased - Council of the highest nobility at the Grand Duza in the Grand Duch of Lithuanian.

Early state - Combining tribes resulting from the collapse of the generic system. In an early state, the state apparatus is born, the tax system, but there are no many signs of a mature state (written laws, permanent army, etc.).

Religion - Faith of people in God or gods, in some supernatural forces that can work wonders, as well as faith in the presence of a soul, continuing to exist after the death of the body. In developed religions, as a rule, exists holy BiblePresenting the basics camera - The idea of \u200b\u200bthe world and the Divine, about the purpose and rules of human life. In addition, the religion exists rituals (rural rules), sacred places and temples - Buildings for worship; priests (clergy) - people conducted by rites, mediators between simple believers and supernatural forces.

Generic system - Organization of society at the primitive stage of development, in which people are combined into childbirth and tribes, and each other are perceived either as "their relatives" or as "strangers".

Generic community - Combining families derived from one ancestor to jointly owned land and managed by generic elders.

Ruble - From the XIII century. - the main monetary unit of the Novgorod Republic, and afterwards the Russian state; There existed in the form of a silver ingot, not coins.

Knight - In Europe, the name of the heavy rider, the feudal warrior.

Saint (In Christianity) - a person who took death for the Christian faith or famous for his pious life, perfect in the name of the god with the feats and miracles, who, after his death, was counted for the decision of the Church to face the saints and began to read.

Senor - feudal, telling land with peasants to his vassals and for the service.

Scromorchi - Stray artists in Russia.

Messo - Part of the residents of rural communities of the worlds of Russia, which depended on the prince and were to walk with him in military campaigns.

Church cathedral - A collection of church ranks (higher priests) for the Council and to solve the most important issues.

Own - The right to own, use, dispose of anything. For example, the owner of the land plot can reject his fence, grow bread on it, transfer the site to inherit or sell. Property may be private (one person), community, state, feudal (conditional - given under the condition).

Neighboring community (rural community, peasant community) - Union of unrelated families who live in the same village (village, village), jointly own land, but each family leads its farm on the site allocated to it. The neighbor community is managed by the gathering of householders and the elected headman.

Estate - A group of people with special rights and responsibilities in society. According to Western Europe's ideas, clergy prays for everyone and gets the tenth of the crop, chivalry Protects people and owns lands with peasants, third class (peasants and townspeople) work and feed others.

Union of tribes - Association of related tribes led by one of the breeding leaders, jointly defended their lands.

Tyun. - a servant-management in the farm in the farm; Prince Tiunas also performed various government assignments.

Troubadura - In Western Europe, writing songs and poems, sometimes knights, and sometimes stray artists.

Tumen - The major combat connection of the Mongolian army of Genghis Khan and his successors (10 thousand riders).

Thousands - The election position of the leader of the city militia in Russia.

True - All the duties that have carried the applied people of the Russian state in favor of the Grand Duke, that is, the states (taxes and some work - the construction of the fortress walls, the delivery of the army's provision).

Load - Part of the principality-land, semi-model possession allocated to one of the younger members of the ruling dynasty.

County - The main territorial administrative unit of the Russian state.

Ulus. - self-governing part of the Mongolian Empire, created as a result of the conquests of Genghis Khan.

University - In medieval Western Europe (from the XI century) is a self-governing Union of professors and students, a higher educational institution, which is preparing for the three faculties of theologians, lawyers and doctors.

Grass - The struggle for power in one principality or for the education of an independent reign.

Oshshiniki - Novgorod robbers, which, moving along the northern rivers, was mastered and joined new territories to Novgorod.

Feudal lord - The conditional owner of a large land farm, having the right to receive marks with peasants dependent on him and prescribe for them the Barenchina (mandatory work).

Feudal relations - Social and economic relations between people, assumed: 1) the ownership of land (feudomes), subject to the Vassal service, the Supreme Owner of the Earth (senor, sovereign), as well as 2) the right of the landowners' feudallands on regulations and the barbecan with dependent peasants.

Feudal fragmentation - The stage in the history of medieval Western European states, when they were divided into feudal possessions and the owner of each of them made himself the laws, judged, collected taxes, kept his army, and the central ruler did not have real power.

Fresco - Wall painting with paints for raw plaster.

Slats - (in Russia) slaves who personally belonged to any person

Christianity - Religion, the founder of which is the Bogochovel - the Son of the Lord God and the Earth Girl Maria Jesus Christ (according to legend - a carpenter from the Roman province of Judea, who lived in I century.). The Holy Scriptures of Christians - the Bible - consists of the Old and New Testaments. Christians believe in the Almighty Lord God, one in three faces: Father, Son and the Holy Spirit. According to the Christian ideas created by the Lord, the world consists of the world of heaven - Paradise, where God himself is, the angels and the souls of righteous people, the world of earthly and hell, where Satan commands (Devil) - an angel rising against God. In the earthly world, man has a mortal body and an immortal soul. Already the first people - Adam and Eve, who lived in Paradise, at the tip of the devil committed the first sin - broke the ban of God is not fruits from the Tree of knowledge of good and evil. Since then, people have been expelled from Paradise and in the earthly world constantly made sins - killed each other, stunned, worshiped the invented gods. The souls, burdened by sins, the devil took into hell, where eternal torments were waiting for them. The coming to the world of the Son of God - Christ - gave people a new covenant - the commandment in the relations of God and people. Suffering and death on the Cross Jesus as a man redeemed all the sins of people. Resurrection of Christ indicates all people the way to save the soul for eternal life. To do this, it is necessary to "love our Lord God with your all my heart," "to love your neighbor as yourself," "To do with others, as they would like them to come with you," "forgive your enemies." The Christian should avoid sins (pride, envy, wrath, laziness, greed, wastefulness and gluttony) and keep virtue (faith, hope, love). In the New Testament, the end of the world is predicted when the Antichrist will appear in the world and "the people will rise, the kingdom to the kingdom." After that, Christ comes to the world for the second time and a terrible court will be held - sinners will be convicted of eternal flour, and the righteous will be resurrected. To help each other in the salvation of the soul, Christians are united to church (community). The priests make the sacraments (rites), the main thing of which is a communion - to bind to believers of bread and wines, reincarnated in the "body and blood of Christ". In the Middle Ages, Christian religion was divided into several branches, the most famous of which are Orthodoxy and Catholicism.

Centralized state - The state in which the Central Government has all the authorities, publishing uniform laws collecting taxes containing a single army and appointing officials.

Church

Gentry - The estate of serving landowners in Poland and the Grand Duch of Lithuanian.

Paganism - Religious beliefs based on primitive myths about the many gods, spirits, olive-talking forces of nature (sun, rain, fertility), human classes (agriculture, trade, war).

Labels - Khan's diplomas permits for the right to possess one or another land in the Mongol Empire.

1. System There are many objects in any respect with each other. The structure of the system is characterized by its components and their connections with each other.

2. Subsystem It is called the largest part of the system, which has a certain autonomy and itself is a lower level system.

3. Hierarchy It is called the subordination of the systems to each other.

4. Structure Systems call a set of relationships and interactions of its elements, thanks to which the properties of the system that are missing in its parts arise.

5. The presence of the properties of the system that are missing from its constituent parts is called integitivity or Emergenity.

6. Integrity The systems are called its generalized characteristic reflecting the unity of its parts in the diversity of interconnection.

7. Additivity - This property is that the value of the values \u200b\u200bcorresponding to the system is equal to the sum of the values \u200b\u200bof similar values \u200b\u200bof its elements.

8. Reductionism It is called the reduction of a more complex and higher level to the level of development to more simple.

9. Determinism - Philosophical doctrine about the objective pattern of business relationships and the causal conditionality of all phenomena. The wording of P. S. Laplas: "If the mind existed, aware of the currently of nature at the points of the application of these forces at the moment, then nothing would be left, which would be unreliable for him, and the future, as well as the past, appeared Be before his gaze. "

10. Dynamic system It is a mathematical object corresponding to real physical, biological and other objects whose evolution is uniquely determined by the initial state.

11. The set of states of the dynamic system is described by a set of variables and depicted by points in the phase space.

12. The evolution of the dynamic system is displayed by trajectories in the phase space.

13. Dynamic systems are divided into the following classes:

- finite-dimensional and infinite-dimensional;

– conservative (in which mechanical energy persists) and dissipative (in which mechanical energy is scattered);

- with continuous time (streams) and with discrete time (cascades);

- Rough (structurally stable) and non-unbubble.

14. The value of the parameter in which the system loses rudeness (stability), is called bifurcation.

15. The steady movement of the dissipative system is responsible attractor - Many trajectories to which all close trajectories are attracted.

16. Dynamic chaos It is called an irregular change in the state of the dynamic system, which has the basic properties of the random process. Examples of systems with dynamic chaos: planetary systems, weather and climate, turbulence, stock markets.

17. Open It is called a system capable of sharing with the environment with the substance, energy and information.

18. Feedback It is called the impact of the results of the functioning of any system on the nature of this functioning. Feedback is called positive if its effect enhances the results of operation, and, on the contrary, negative when weakening these results.

19. Self-regulating It is called a system capable of ensuring the constancy of its structure, properties and functions. In such a system, all deviations arising under the action of the environment decrease or eliminate with the operational functioning of negative feedbacks.

Figure 3.1 shows the relationship between the self-regulating system (control object) and the control link. The arrows show the flow streams. Information on deviations in the object enters the control link (left branch), from where the commands go to the object that can reduce deviations arising there (right branch). The combination of these threads forms a negative feedback contour.

20. The property of preserving its quality (self-regulation) is called gomeostaty. There are deviation limits in which the system is capable of self-regulation. The permissible limit of each specific deviation is called gomeostatic Range. In the operational functioning of negative inverse deviations, the boundaries of the homeostatic range do not leave, therefore self-regulation is implemented in the system (Fig. 3.2, option 1). If the feedbacks are delayed, deviations go beyond the permissible range (option 2 in Fig. 3.2). If the feedbacks have been denied, deviations can grow oldly, this means the death of the system or its transition to another quality (option 3 in Fig. 3.2)

21. In the second half of the 20th century, an idea appeared in the scientific worldview self-organization matter. Theories studied by the general patterns of self-organization are synergetics and nonequilibrium thermodynamics.

23. Subject of study Synergetics are common laws of self-organization in natural and social systems.

24. The basis of synergetics lie the following ideas:

- processes destruction and creation, as well as the processes of degradation and evolution in the universe equal;

- Creating processes (the increase in complexity and orderliness) have a single algorithm, regardless of the nature of the systems in which they are implemented.

25 Self-organizing - This is a spontaneous transition from less complex to more complex and ordered forms of matter organization. Examples of self-organization are laser radiation, cells of Benar, Beloususov-Zhabotinsky reaction, spiral waves.

26. Entropy. open system It may decrease if this system receives an orderly from the environment greater than it produces disorders within itself. In such a system there is self-organization. In general, the change in entropy in an open system is determined by the sum of two streams: entering into the environment (here entropy is always grown) and incoming from the medium (here entropy can, both grow and decrease).

27. Examples self-organizing Systems in which entropy can decrease are living organisms. They get an orderly from the external environment in the form of food, which is highly organized structures. In addition, all organisms return to the substance medium in a highly simplified state, increasing the entropy of the external environment.

28. The apparent paradox is the evolution of a living, which occurs with descending of entropy in living systems against the background of universal entropy growth.

29. The open system is planet Earthreceiving energy from an external environment. The planet goes the processes of self-organization, in which more entropy is reset into the surrounding space than it is made on Earth and comes from the outside.

30. Necessary self-organization conditions The following are:

- the system must be openSince the isolated system according to the second law of thermodynamics can evolve only towards disorganization. An important role in the process of transition from disorder to the order is played by dissipative processes, so the new states of matter arising are called dissipative structures. Precisely dissipation of energy due to unstable movements - fluctuations or deviationThe result of their development is new stable dissipative structures. In nature are observed spatially periodic, temporary and spatio-temporal dissipative structures;

- self-organizing systems must be significantly nexiclesthat is, the deviation from equilibrium should exceed some critical value. Near the equilibrium position, the system will be able to get closer to it and come into full disorganization. In distance from the equilibrium position, the system will be able to adapt to its surrounding in various ways, this means that with the same parameter values, several different solutions are possible;

- systems in which self-organization occurs, nonlinearThat is, they do not apply to the principle of superposition. The joint impact of two reasons may result in consequences, sharply different from the results of these actions separately. The influence of weaker influences may be more significant than the impact of strong, if the first will be adequate to the system's own tendencies. An example is the phenomenon of resonance. Nonlinear processes may have a threshold: when smoothly change the external conditions, the behavior of the system changes the jump if the external parameter has reached a critical value;

- Microscopic processes must occur consistently (corporate or coherent). This means that the system should behave as a whole. There is a significant difference in self-developing systems from self-regulating. A self-regulating system will exhaust deviations during operational operation negative Inverse relations, which will ensure the preservation of the former quality. On the contrary, the emergence of a new quality (i.e. self-organization) is due to the accumulation and enhancement of deviations (fluctuations) in the system under the action positive inverse relations.

31. In self-organization there are two periods (Fig. 3.3):

- smooth evolutionary development ( adaptation), as a result of which the system achieves an unstable critical state;

- Exit from the critical state into a new stable state (bifurcation), more complex and ordered.

32. Bifurcation It is called the achievement of a critical state system, the yield from which is carried out by a jump, and the choice of the path of further development is ambiguous and unpredictable.

33. Near the bifurcation point of fluctuations, it is increasing, after the point of bifurcation of fluctuations stabilize, a new stable state occurs - order from chaos.

34. Principles universal evolutionism:

- the idea of \u200b\u200buniversal development;

- an objective and cognitive process of self-organization;

- a single process of the development of inanimate nature, live matter and human society;

- the fundamental and dismantling role of chance and uncertainty;

- the laws of nature are the principles of selection of admissible states from all imaginable;

- development is an alternation of slow quantitative and rapid qualitative changes (bifurcations);

- the unpredictability of the way out of the bifurcation point means that the past affects the future, but does not determine it;

- stability and reliability of natural systems are the result of their continuous update;

- the developing system evolves together with the environment, which is called coevolution.

Replies to tasks 1-24 are the word, phrase, number or sequence of words, numbers. Record the answer to the right of the task number without spaces, commas and other additional characters.

Read the text and execute 1-3 tasks.

(1) One of the ingenious devices that nature bestowed cacti is spines. (2) ______ They help plants to survive in hot and arid areas of South and North America: sharp and spreading spines protect plants from eating animals, thick and tightly adjacent - they save from drops of daily temperatures, long and thick - create, like blinds, shadow, And nectar, which accumulates on the rally of some spines, attracts insect pollinators. (3) Also spines help cacti to carry drought, because steam condense and hold the droplets of dew and rain.

1

In which of the suggested suggestions is correctly transferred to the main information contained in the text?

1. Different types of barns protect cacti in hot and arid areas of America from animals and temperature drops, create a shadow and attract insect pollinators, and also condense water vapor and hold moisture.

2. Acute and spread spines protect plants from eating animals, thick and tightly adjacent saves cacti from drops of daily temperatures, long and thick create a shadow.

3. Protecting from animals and temperature drops, creating a shadow and attracting insect pollinators, condensing water vapor and holding moisture, different types of barbles help cacti survive in the arid areas of America.

4. The nectar, which accumulates on the rally of some spines, attracts insect pollinators, thanks to which so many cacti in the hot and arid areas of America.

5. Spins, being one of the ingenious devices that nature gave cacti, save these plants from eating animals, from temperature drops, and also create a shadow.

2

Which of the words below (words combinations) should stand at the place of pass in the second (2) of the text of the text? Write this word (combination of words).

1. Consequently

4. In other words

3

Read the fragment of the vocabulary article in which the values \u200b\u200bof the word domain are given. Determine the value in which this word is used in Proposition 2. Write the figure corresponding to this value in the listed vocabulary fragment.

Area, -y, g.

1. A large administrative and territorial unit. Moscow region.

2. Branch of activity, circle of classes, ideas. New science area.

3. Part of the country, territory. Northern Europe.

4. A separate part of the body. Pain in the chest area.

4

In one of the words below, an error is made in the staging of the emphasis: the letter denoting the shock vowel sound is incorrectly highlighted. Write this word.

plum

bent

5

In one of the proposals below, the selected word is incorrect. Correct the error and write down the word correctly.

1. All the growing bushes and the Christmas tree were in web, and each web was to be unilowered by tiny water pearls.

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16

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18

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20

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