Introduction

1. Food chains and trophic levels

2. Food webs

3. Food connections of a fresh water body

4. Food connections of the forest

5. Energy losses in power circuits

6. Ecological pyramids

6.1 Pyramids of numbers

6.2 Biomass pyramids

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Organisms in nature are linked by a common energy and nutrients. The entire ecosystem can be likened to a single mechanism that consumes energy and nutrients to do work. Nutrients initially originate from the abiotic component of the system, to which, in the end, they return either as waste products, or after the death and destruction of organisms.

Within the ecosystem, organic matter containing energy is created by autotrophic organisms and serves as food (a source of matter and energy) for heterotrophs. Typical example: an animal eats plants. This animal, in turn, can be eaten by another animal, and in this way energy can be transferred through a number of organisms - each subsequent one feeds on the previous one, supplying, supplying him with raw materials and energy. This sequence is called the food chain, and each link is called the trophic level.

The purpose of the abstract is to characterize food connections in nature.

1. Food chains and trophic levels

Biogeocenoses are very complex. They always have many parallel and intricately intertwined food chains, and the total number of species is often measured in hundreds or even thousands. Almost always, different species feed on several different objects and themselves serve as food for several members of the ecosystem. The result is a complex network of food connections.

Each link in the food chain is called a trophic level. The first trophic level is occupied by autotrophs, or the so-called primary producers. Organisms of the second trophic level are called primary consumers, the third - secondary consumers, etc. Usually there are four or five trophic levels and rarely more than six.

The primary producers are autotrophic organisms, mainly green plants. Some prokaryotes, namely blue-green algae and a few species of bacteria, also photosynthesize, but their contribution is relatively small. Photosynthetics convert solar energy (light energy) into chemical energy, contained in organic molecules that make up tissues. Chemosynthetic bacteria, which extract energy from inorganic compounds, also make a small contribution to the production of organic matter.

In aquatic ecosystems, the main producers are algae - often small unicellular organisms that make up the phytoplankton of the surface layers of oceans and lakes. On land, most of the primary production comes from the more highly organized forms related to gymnosperms and angiosperms. They form forests and meadows.

Primary consumers feed on primary producers, that is, they are herbivores. On land, many insects, reptiles, birds and mammals are typical herbivores. The most important groups of herbivorous mammals are rodents and ungulates. The latter include grazing animals such as horses, sheep, cattle, adapted to run at their fingertips.

In aquatic ecosystems (freshwater and marine), herbivorous forms are usually represented by mollusks and small crustaceans. Most of these organisms - cladocerans and copepods, crab larvae, barnacles and bivalve molluscs (such as mussels and oysters) - feed by filtering out the smallest primary producers from the water. Together with protozoa, many of them make up the bulk of zooplankton feeding on phytoplankton. Life in oceans and lakes is almost entirely dependent on plankton, as almost all food chains begin with it.

Plant material (e.g. nectar) → fly → spider →

→ shrew → owl

Rose bush juice → aphid → ladybug → spider → insectivorous bird → bird of prey

There are two main types of food webs - grazing and detrital. Above were examples of pasture chains in which the first trophic level is occupied by green plants, the second by pasture animals and the third by predators. The bodies of dead plants and animals still contain energy and "building material", as well as vital excretions such as urine and feces. These organic materials are decomposed by microorganisms, namely fungi and bacteria that live as saprophytes on organic debris. Such organisms are called decomposers. They release digestive enzymes into dead bodies or waste products and absorb the products of their digestion. The decomposition rate can vary. Organic matter from urine, faeces and animal carcasses is consumed in a few weeks, while fallen trees and branches can decay for many years. Fungi play a very important role in the decomposition of wood (and other plant residues), which secrete the enzyme cellulose, which softens the wood, and this allows small animals to enter and absorb the softened material.

Pieces of partially decomposed material are called detritus, and many small animals (deposit feeders) feed on it, accelerating the decomposition process. Since both true decomposers (fungi and bacteria) and detritivores (animals) participate in this process, both are sometimes called decomposers, although in reality this term refers only to saprophytic organisms.

Larger organisms, in turn, can feed on detritophages, and then a food chain of a different type is created - a chain, a chain starting with detritus:

Detritus → detritophage → predator

The detritus feeders of forest and coastal communities include earthworms, wood lice, carrion fly larva (forest), polychaete, crimson, and holothuria (coastal zone).

Here are two typical detrital food chains in our forests:

Litter → Earthworm → Blackbird → Sparrowhawk

Dead Animal → Carrion Fly Larvae → Grass Frog → Common Snake

Some typical detritus feeders are earthworms, wood lice, two-legged and smaller (<0,5 мм) животные, такие, как клещи, ногохвостки, нематоды и черви-энхитреиды.

2. Food webs

In food chain diagrams, each organism is represented as feeding on other organisms of one type. However, the real food connections in an ecosystem are much more complex, since an animal can feed on organisms of different types from the same food chain or even from different food chains. This is especially true for the predators of the upper trophic levels. Some animals feed on both other animals and plants; they are called omnivores (such is, in particular, man). In reality, food chains are intertwined in such a way that a food (trophic) web is formed. A food web diagram can show only a few of the many possible relationships, and it usually includes only one or two predators from each of the upper trophic levels. Such diagrams illustrate nutritional relationships between organisms in an ecosystem and serve as a basis for quantitative studies of ecological pyramids and ecosystem productivity.

3. Food connections of a fresh water body

Fresh water supply chains consist of several successive links. For example, protozoa feed on plant debris and bacteria developing on them, which are eaten by small crustaceans. Crustaceans, in turn, serve as food for fish, and the latter can be eaten by predatory fish. Almost all species eat more than one type of food, but use different food items. Food chains are intricately intertwined. An important general conclusion follows from this: if any member of the biogeocenosis falls out, then the system is not disturbed, since other food sources are used. The greater the species diversity, the more stable the system.

The primary source of energy in the aquatic biogeocenosis, as in most ecological systems, is sunlight, thanks to which plants synthesize organic matter. Obviously, the biomass of all animals existing in the reservoir completely depends on the biological productivity of plants.

TROPHIC CHAINS

Purpose of work: to acquire skills in compiling and analyzing food (trophic) chains.

General information

There are various connections between the living organisms of ecosystems. One of the central connections, which, as it were, cements a variety of organisms into one ecosystem, is food, or trophic. Food connections unite organisms among themselves according to the principle food - consumer. This leads to the emergence of food, or trophic chains. Within the ecosystem, energetic substances are created by autotrophic organisms and serve as food for heterotrophs. Food connections are the mechanisms of energy transfer from one organism to another. A typical example is an animal eating plants. This animal, in turn, can be eaten by other animals. In this way, energy can be transferred through a number of organisms.

Each subsequent one feeds on the previous one, supplying him with raw materials and energy.

Such a sequence of transfer of food energy in the process of nutrition from its source through a successive series of living organisms is called food (trophic) chain,or power supply circuit. Trophic chains- this is the path of a unidirectional flow of solar energy absorbed in the process of photosynthesis through the living organisms of the ecosystem into the environment, where its unused part is dissipated in the form of low-temperature thermal energy.

mice, sparrows, pigeons. Sometimes in the ecological literature any food link is called a predator-prey link, meaning a predator is an eater. The stability of the predator-prey system is provided by the following factors:

- ineffectiveness of the predator, flight of the prey;

- environmental restrictions imposed by the external environment on the population size;

- availability of alternative food resources for predators;

- reducing the delay in the reaction of the predator.

The place of each link in the food chain is trophic level.The first trophic level is occupied by autotrophs, or the so-called primary producers.Organisms of the second trophic level are called per-

primary consumers, the third - secondary consumers, etc.

Food chains are divided into two main types: grazing (grazing chains, consumption chains) and detrital (decomposition chains).

Plant → Hare → Wolf Producer → Herbivore → Carnivore

The following food chains are also widespread:

Plant material (e.g. nectar) → fly → spider → shrew → owl.

Rose bush juice → aphid → ladybug → spider → insectivorous bird → bird of prey.

In aquatic, in particular, marine ecosystems, the food chains of predators are longer than in terrestrial ones.

The detritus chain begins with dead organic matter - detritus, which is destroyed by detritivores consumed by small predators, and ends with the work of decomposers, mineralizing organic remains. Deciduous forests play an important role in the detrital food chains of terrestrial ecosystems, most of the foliage of which is not consumed by herbivorous animals and is included in the forest litter. The leaves are crushed by numerous detritivores (fungi, bacteria, insects), then swallowed by earthworms, which carry out a uniform distribution of humus in the surface layer of the soil, forming a mull. Decomposing

microorganisms completing the chain produce the final mineralization of dead organic residues (Fig. 1).

In general, typical detrital chains of our forests can be represented as follows:

leaf litter → earthworm → blackbird → sparrowhawk;

dead animal → larvae of carrion flies → grass frog → already.

Figure: 1. Detrital food chain (after Nebel, 1993)

As a starting organic material that undergoes biological processing in the soil by organisms inhabiting the soil, we can consider wood as an example. The wood that falls on the soil surface is primarily processed by the larvae of the longhorn beetle insects, gold beetles, and drills, which use it for food. They are replaced by mushrooms, the mycelium of which first of all settles in the passages made in the wood by insects. Mushrooms loosen and destroy wood even more. Such loose wood and the mycelium itself turn out to be food for the larvae of the fireflower. At the next stage, ants settle in the already heavily destroyed wood, which destroy almost all the larvae and create conditions for a new generation of fungi to settle in the wood. Snails begin to feed on these mushrooms. The destruction and humification of wood is completed by microbes-reducers.

The humification and mineralization of manure from wild and domestic animals entering the soil proceeds in a similar way.

As a rule, the food of each living creature is more or less varied. Only all green plants "feed" the same: carbon dioxide and ions of mineral salts. In animals, cases of a narrow specialization of nutrition are quite rare. As a result of a possible change in the nutrition of animals, all organisms of ecosystems are involved in a complex network of food relationships. Food chains are closely intertwined with each other, forming food, or food webs.In the food web, each species is directly or indirectly related to many. An example of a food web with the distribution of organisms at trophic levels is shown in Fig. 2.

Food webs in ecosystems are very complex, and we can conclude that the energy entering them migrates for a long time from one organism to another.

Figure: 2. Trophic web

In biocenoses, food connections play a double role. First, they

provide the transfer of matter and energy from one organism to another.

Together, in this way, species coexist that support each other's life. Second, nutritional connections serve as a mechanism for regulating the numerical

The representation of food webs can be traditional (Fig. 2) or using directed graphs (digraphs).

A geometrically oriented graph can be represented as a set of vertices, denoted by circles with the vertex numbers, and arcs connecting these vertices. An arc sets the direction from one vertex to another. A path in a graph is a finite sequence of arcs in which the beginning of each subsequent arc coincides with the end of the previous one. Arcs can be denoted by a pair of vertices that it connects. The path is written as a sequence of vertices through which it passes. A path is called a path, the initial vertex of which coincides with the final one.

EG:

IN 3;

1, 2 or 1, 3, 2 - paths from the top

In the power supply network, the top of the graph displays objects of modeling; the arcs, indicated by arrows, are drawn from the prey to the predator.

Any living organism occupies a certain ecological niche... An ecological niche is a set of territorial and functional characteristics of a habitat that meet the requirements of a given species. No two species have identical niches in the ecological phase space. According to the Gause principle of competitive exclusion, two species with similar ecological requirements cannot occupy one ecological niche for a long time. These species compete, and one of them replaces the other. Based on power networks, you can build competition graph.Living organisms in the competition graph are displayed as the vertices of the graph, an edge (connection without direction) is drawn between the vertices if there is a living organism that serves as food for the organisms displayed by the above vertices.

Development of the competition graph allows you to identify competing species of organisms and analyze the functioning of the ecosystem and its vulnerability.

The principle of matching the growth of ecosystem complexity and increasing its resilience is widely accepted. If the ecosystem is represented by a food network, there are different ways to measure complexity:

- determine the number of arcs;

- find the ratio of the number of arcs to the number of vertices;

The trophic level is also used to measure the complexity and diversity of the food network, i.e. the body's place in the food chain. The trophic level can be determined both by the shortest, as well as by the longest food chain from the top under consideration, which has a trophic level equal to "1".

PROCEDURE FOR PERFORMANCE OF THE WORK

Exercise 1

Make a network for 5 participants: grass, birds, insects, hares, foxes.

Assignment 2

Set the power supply circuits and trophic level along the shortest and longest path of the power supply network from task "1"

4 . Insects

Note: The pasture food chain starts with producers. The organism indicated in column 1 is the upper trophic level. For consumers of the first order, the long and short paths of the trophic chain coincide.

Assignment 3

Suggest a food web according to the option of the task (Table 1P) and make a table of trophic levels along the longest and shortest path. Food preferences of consumers are given in table. 2P.

Assignment 4

Make a food web according to fig. 3 and place its participants by trophic levels

REPORT PLAN

1. Purpose of work.

2. Food web graph and competition graph according to the training example (tasks 1, 2).

3. Table of trophic levels according to the training example (task 3).

4. Food network graph, competition graph, table of trophic levels according to the variant of the task.

5. Scheme of the food web with the distribution of organisms at trophic levels (according to Fig. 3).

Figure: 3. Biocenosis of the tundra.

First row: small passerines, various Diptera insects, Upland Buzzard. Second row: Arctic fox, lemmings, snowy owl. Third row: ptarmigan, white hares. Fourth row: goose, wolf, reindeer.

Literature

1. Reimers N.F. Nature management:Reference dictionary. - M .: Mysl ', 1990.637 p.

2. Animal life in7 volumes. M .: Education, 1983-1989.

3. Zlobin Yu.A. General ecology. Kiev .: Naukova Dumka, 1998 .-- 430 p.

4. Stepanovskikh A.S. Ecology: Textbook for universities. - M .: UNITIDANA,

5. Nebel B. Environmental Science: How the World Works. - M .: Mir, 1993.

–V. 1 - 424 p.

6. Ecology: Textbook for technical universities / L.I. Tsvetkova, M.I. Alekseev, and others; Ed. L.I. Tsvetkova.–M .: ASV; SPb: Khimizdat, 2001.-552s.

7. E.V. Girusov and others. Ecology and economics of nature management: Textbook for universities / Ed. Prof. E.V. Girusova. - M .: Law and Law, UNITI,

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The purpose of the lesson: To form knowledge about the constituent components of the biological community, about the peculiarities of the trophic structure of the community, about food connections that reflect the path of the cycle of substances, form the concepts of the food chain, food web.

During the classes

1. Organizational moment.

2. Checking and updating of knowledge on the topic “Composition and structure of the community”.

On the blackboard: Our world is not an accident, not chaos, - there is a system in everything.

Question. What system in living nature is this statement talking about?

Working with terms.

The task. Insert the missing words.

The community of organisms of different species closely interconnected is called …………. ... It includes: plants, animals, …………. , …………. ... The totality of living organisms and components of inanimate nature, united by the metabolism and energy on a homogeneous area of \u200b\u200bthe earth's surface, is called …………… .. or …………….

The task.Select four components of the ecosystem: bacteria, animals, consumers, fungi, abiotic component, climate, decomposers, plants, producers, water.

Question. How are living organisms in an ecosystem related to each other?

3. Learning new material. Explanation using presentation.

4. Securing new material.

Task number 1. Slide number 20.

Identify and Sign: Producers, Consumers and Reducers. Compare power circuits and establish the similarities between them. (at the beginning of each chain there is plant food, then there is a herbivorous animal, and at the end - a predatory animal). What is the way plants and animals are fed? (plants are autotrophs, that is, they themselves produce organic matter, animals - heterotrophs - consume ready-made organic matter).

Conclusion: the food chain is a series of organisms that feed on each other in sequence. Food chains begin with autotrophs, green plants.

Task number 2. Compare the two food chains, identify features of similarity and difference.

1. Clover - rabbit - wolf
2. Plant litter - earthworm - blackbird - hawk - sparrowhawk (The first food chain begins with producers - living plants, the second - from plant residues - dead organic matter).

In nature, there are two main types of food chains: grazing (grazing chains), which begin with producers, detrital (decomposition chains), which begin with plant and animal residues, animal excrement.

Conclusion: Therefore, the first food chain is pasture, because starts with producers, the second is detrital, because starts with dead organics.

All components of the food chain are distributed at trophic levels. The trophic level is a link in the food chain.

Task number 3. Make a food chain, including the listed organisms in it: caterpillar, cuckoo, tree with leaves, buzzard, soil bacteria. Indicate producers, consumers, reducers. (tree with leaves - caterpillar - buzzard cuckoo - soil bacteria). Determine how many trophic levels this food chain contains (this chain consists of five links, hence five - trophic levels). Determine which organisms are located at each trophic level. Make a conclusion.

• The first trophic level - green plants (producers),
• The second trophic level - herbivorous animals (consumers of the 1st order)
• The third trophic level - small predators (consumers of the 2nd order)
• The fourth trophic level - large predators (consumers of the 3rd order)
• The fifth trophic level - organisms that consume dead organic matter - soil bacteria, fungi (decomposers)

In nature, each organism uses not one food source, but several, then in biogeocenoses food chains intertwine and form food web... For any community, you can draw up a diagram of all the food interactions of organisms and this diagram will have the form of a network (an example of a food web will be considered in Fig. 62 in a biology textbook by the author A.A. Kamensky, etc.)

5. Working off the acquired knowledge.

Practical work in groups.

Task number 1. Solving environmental situations

1. In one of the Canadian reserves, all wolves were destroyed in order to achieve an increase in the herd of deer. Did you manage to achieve the goal in this way? Explain the answer.

2. Hares live on a certain territory. Of these, small rabbits - 100 pieces weighing 2 kg, and their parents 20 pieces - weighing 5 kg. The mass of 1 fox is 10 kg. Find the number of foxes in this forest. How many plants must grow in the forest for hares to grow.

3. In a reservoir with rich vegetation, 2000 water rats live, each rat consumes 80g of plants per day. How many beavers can feed this reservoir if a beaver consumes an average of 200 g of plant food per day.

4. Provide the confused facts in a logically correct sequence (in the form of numbers).

1. The Nile perch began to eat a lot of herbivorous fish.

2. Having multiplied strongly, the plants began to rot, poisoning the water.

3. It took a lot of firewood to smoke Nile perch.

4. In 1960, British colonists launched a Nile perch into the waters of Lake Victoria, which multiplied and grew rapidly, reaching a weight of 40 kg and a length of 1.5 m.

5. Forests on the shores of the lake were intensively cut down - therefore, water erosion of soil began.

6. Dead zones with poisoned water appeared in the lake.

7. The number of herbivorous fish decreased and the lake began to overgrow with aquatic plants.

8. Soil erosion has led to a decrease in field fertility.

9. Poor soil did not yield crops, and the peasants were ruined .

6. Self-examination of the acquired knowledge in the form of a test.

1. Producers of organic matter in the ecosystem

A) producers

B) consumers

C) reducers

D) predators

2. What group are the microorganisms that live in the soil

A) producers

B) consumers of the first order

C) consumers of the II order

D) reducers

3. Name the animal that should be included in the food chain: grass -\u003e ... -\u003e wolf

B) hawk

4. Determine the correct food chain

A) hedgehog -\u003e plant -\u003e grasshopper -\u003e frog

B) grasshopper -\u003e plant -\u003e hedgehog -\u003e frog

C) plant -\u003e grasshopper -\u003e frog -\u003e hedgehog

D) hedgehog -\u003e frog -\u003e grasshopper -\u003e plant

5. In the ecosystem of the coniferous forest, consumers of the 2nd order include

A) common spruce

B) wood mice

C) taiga ticks

D) soil bacteria

6. Plants produce organic matter from inorganic, therefore they play a role in food chains

A) the end link

B) the initial link

C) consumer organisms

D) destructive organisms

7. Bacteria and fungi in the cycle of substances play the role of:

A) producers of organic substances

B) consumers of organic substances

C) destroyers of organic substances

D) destroyers of inorganic substances

8. Identify a properly structured food chain

A) hawk -\u003e tit -\u003e insect larvae -\u003e pine

B) pine -\u003e tit -\u003e insect larvae -\u003e hawk

C) pine -\u003e insect larvae -\u003e tit -\u003e hawk

D) insect larvae -\u003e pine -\u003e tit -\u003e hawk

9. Determine which animal should be included in the food chain: cereals -\u003e? -\u003e already -\u003e kite

A) frog

D) lark

10. Identify a properly structured food chain

A) seagull -\u003e perch -\u003e fish fry -\u003e algae

B) algae -\u003e seagull -\u003e perch -\u003e fish fry

C) fish fry -\u003e algae -\u003e perch -\u003e seagull

D) algae -\u003e fish fry -\u003e perch -\u003e seagull

11. Continue the food chain: wheat -\u003e mouse -\u003e ...

B) gopher

C) fox

D) triton

7. General conclusions of the lesson.

Answer the questions:

1. How organisms are interconnected in biogeocenosis (food relations)
2. What is the food chain (a number of organisms that feed on each other in sequence)
3. What types of food webs are distinguished (grazing and detritus chains)
4. What is the name of the link in the food chain (trophic level)
5. What is the food web (interlocking food chains)

Goal: to expand knowledge about biotic factors of the environment.

Equipment:herbarium plants, stuffed chordates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals), insect collections, wet preparations of animals, illustrations of various plants and animals.

Working process:

1. Use equipment and make two power circuits. Remember that the chain always begins with a producer and ends with a reducer.

________________ →________________→_______________→_____________

2. Remember your observations in nature and make two food chains. Sign producers, consumers (1st and 2nd orders), reducers.

________________ →________________→_______________→_____________

_______________ →________________→_______________→_____________

What is a food chain and what is its basis? What determines the stability of the biocenosis? Formulate your conclusion.

Conclusion:______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

3. Name the organisms that should be in the missing place of the following food chains

1. From the proposed list of living organisms, compose the food web:

2.grass, berry bush, fly, tit, frog, snake, hare, wolf, rotting bacteria, mosquito, grasshopper. Indicate the amount of energy that moves from one level to another.

3. Knowing the rule of energy transfer from one trophic level to another (about 10%), build a biomass pyramid of the third food chain (task 1). The plant biomass is 40 tons.

4. Conclusion: what do the rules of ecological pyramids reflect?

1. Wheat → mouse → snake → saprophytic bacteria

Algae → fish → seagull → bacteria

2. Grass (producer) - grasshopper (consumer of the 1st order) - birds (consumer of the 2nd order) - bacteria.

Grass (producers) - moose (1st order consumer) - wolf (2nd order consumer) - bacteria.

Conclusion: The food chain is a series of organisms that feed on each other in sequence. Food chains begin with autotrophs, green plants.

3.flower nectar → fly → spider → titmouse → hawk

wood → bark beetle → woodpecker

grass → grasshopper → frog → snake-eater

leaves → mouse → cuckoo

seeds → sparrow → viper → stork

4. From the proposed list of living organisms, compose a food web:

grass → grasshopper → frog → already → rotting bacteria

bush → hare → wolf → fly → rotting bacteria

These are chains, the network consists of the interaction of chains, but their text should not be indicated well, something like this, the main thing is that the chain always begins with producers (plants), and always ends with reducers.

The amount of energy always goes according to the rules of 10%, for each next level only 10% of all energy goes.

Trophic (food) chain - a sequence of types of organisms, reflecting the movement in the ecosystem of organic substances and the biochemical energy contained in them in the process of feeding organisms. The term comes from the Greek trophy - food, food.

Conclusion: Therefore, the first food chain is pasture, because starts with producers, the second is detrital, because starts with dead organics.

All components of the food chain are distributed at trophic levels. The trophic level is a link in the food chain.

Ear, plants of the family cereals, monocots.

For me, nature is a kind of well-oiled mechanism in which everything is provided to the smallest detail. It's amazing how everything is thought out, and it is unlikely that a person will ever be able to create something like this.

What does the term "power circuit" mean?

According to the scientific definition, this concept includes the transfer of energy through a number of organisms, where producers are the first link. This group includes plants that absorb inorganic substances from which nutritious organic compounds are synthesized. They are eaten by consumers - organisms that are not capable of independent synthesis, which means they are forced to eat ready-made organic matter. These are herbivores and insects, which serve as a "meal" for other consumers - predators. As a rule, the chain contains about 4-6 levels, where the closing link is represented by reducers - organisms decomposing organic matter. In principle, there can be much more links, but there is a natural "limiter": on average, each link receives little energy from the previous one - up to 10%.

Examples of food chains in a forest community

Forests have their own characteristics, depending on their type. Coniferous forests are not distinguished by rich herbal vegetation, which means that food chains will have a certain set of animals. For example, a deer gladly feasts on an elderberry, and itself becomes the prey of a bear or lynx. There will be a set for deciduous forest. For example:

• bark - bark beetles - tit - falcon;
• fly - reptile - ferret - fox;
• seeds and fruits - squirrel - owl;
• plant - beetle - frog - already - hawk.

It is worth mentioning the scavengers who "utilize" organic remains. There are a great many of them in the forests: from the simplest unicellular to vertebrates. Their contribution to nature is enormous, because otherwise the planet would be covered with animal remains. They also transform dead bodies into inorganic compounds that plants need, and everything starts anew. In general, nature is perfection itself!